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Plate showing stapes ill the development of the convolutions in the brain of the 
human embryo (after Professor D. J. Cunningham. ) 

Fig. I, right side view, earlier part of the fifth month. Fig. 2, near the seventh 
month. Fig. 3, about the seventh month. Fig. 4, left side view between the eighth and 
ninth month; earlier stages shown on page 70. 



Brain in Relation to Mind 



J^ SANDERSON CHRISTISON, M.D. 

Author of ''Crime and Criminals," Etc. Formerly 
of the New York City Asylums for the 
Insane, EtCo 



CHICAGO, 

1899. 



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45101 



Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 
By J. SANDERSON CHRISTISON. 



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5ipggi*i« 






COPIES RECEIVED. 



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PREFACE. 

This brochure is addressed to physicians and laymen. Com- 
paratively fe7u physicians and fewer laymen have a satisfactory 
view of the relationship of brain to mind, and thus a concise 
treatise upon the subject containing sufficient relevant facts to 
indicate the present status of our knowledge, must surely have 
a right to live, especially in view of the recent revival of the 
materialistic doctrine of mind. 

The plan of the work, in the main, has been to cite facts 
ratJier than present arguments, and to establish these facts by 
the best of references. In the first chapter some general prin- 
ciples are applied to the claims of materialism, while the 
second and third chapters presefit a general -outline of the de- 
velopment and functioning of the brain. Chapter IV presents 
data having reference to the theory that some part of the brain 
is the seat of the mind or is most subservient to thought activity. 

Owing to the desirableness of brevity as an attractive fea- 
ture to a large class of lay readers, some interesting deductions 
have been ojnitted, especially in regard to the data in Chapters 
V and VI. These I hope to point out in a psychological 
treatise. 

Tiie numbers in the text point to references given at the end 
of the book, where a short glossary for lay readers will also 
be found. J. SANDERSON CHRISTISON, 

Chicago, July, i8gg. lOO State St. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. — General Consideration _ .... 7 

II. — Brain Cells and Their Relations - - - 19 

III. — Theory of Sensory and Motor Centers - 34 

IV. — Theory of Mind Localization - - - 47 

V. — Brain Form in Relation to Mind - - 69 

VI. — Brain Size in Relation to Mind - - - 91 

VII. — Normal Mind 109 

VIII. — Supplement to Chapter iv. - . . . 14^ 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 

The three principal doctrines of brain in relation 
to mind, are given by Dr. J. Hughlings Jackson 
as follows: 

First. * 'That activities of the highest centers and 
mental states are one and the same thing, or dif- 
ferent sides of the same thing. This doctrine has 
been destroyed." 

Second. "That mind acts through the nervous 
system (through the highest centers first); here an 
immaterial agency is supposed to produce physical 
effects. " 

Third. "(«) States of consciousness (synony- 
mously states of mind) are utterly different from 
nervous states of the highest centers; (U) The two 
things occur together, for every mental state there 
being a correlative nervous state; {c) Although the 
two things occur in parallelism, there is no inter- 

(7) 



8 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

ference the one with the other. Hence we do not 
say that psychical states are functions of the brain, 
but simply that they occur during the functioning 
of the brain. " 

Dr. Jackson holds the last theory, and observes 
that an essentially similar theory was held by Mill, 
Hamilton, Spencer, Clifford, Max Mueller, Huxley, 
Bain, DuBois Raymond, Laycock, Tyndall, Her- 
m.an, etc. (i). 

Notwithstanding the correctness of Dr. Jackson's 
statement that the materialistic doctrine of mind 
has been destroyed, it seems to be reviving with 
more assertiveness than ever, as the following 
recent utterances go to show. 

Says Clodd: "If mind is an entity independent 
of brain, it would not only stand outside the ordi- 
nary conditions of development, but it would also 
maintain the equilibrium which a dose of narcotics 
or of alcohol, or which starvation and gorging 
alike rapidly upset" (2). 

Dr. A. Morison in a lecture last year before the 
Royal College of Physicians, Edinburg, describes 
his view as follows: "The functions of the brain 
are receptive, retentive or connective and execu- 
tive. Just as the functions of the stomach are the 



GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 9 

reception, digestion and transmission of food, so 
the higher brain receives and inwardly digests im- 
pressions and transmutes them into action, volun- 
tary, emotional, regulative and trophic" (3). 

The Medical Record, New York, declares: "It 
is beyond controversy that the basis of the phe- 
nomenon which we call thought, depends upon the 
activities of certain cells or groups of cells more 
or less correlated." "Physiologically we judge a 
cell by what it does or by what it produces. For 
example if we take a liver cell, we know that one 
of its functions is to produce bile, and we know 
that alterations in the quality or quantity of the 
blood circulating in the liver cause changes in the 
physiological activities of such a hepatic cell. 
Thought is a manifestation of the combined and 
coordinated action of certain groups of cortical 
nerve cells, and the more complex the thought or 
the more varied its manifestations, the o-reater will 
be the number of cortical cells required for its 
development" (4). 

Luys accounts for memory as follows: "These 
(the brain cells) are gifted with a sort of organic 
phosphorescence and are capable of vibrating and 
storing up external impressions. " * 'They act simul- 



lO BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

taneously to produce the phenomena of memory, 
and separately give off reminiscences as illuminated 
bodies give off the luminous waves they have 
stored up in their substance" (5). 

I propose to briefly discuss the subject under 
the terms of memory and thought, using memory 
in its ordinary sense. 

It may be laid down as a general principle that 
the essential qualities in a cause must also enter 
into its results and exist in them in one way or 
another, so that a product must in some way reveal 
the nature of its origin by exhibiting something in 
common with it. It therefore follows that, as 
all matter is conditioned by time and space, it 
is inconceivable that anything which is not condi- 
tioned by these two universal essentials of matter 
can in any way have been de rived y"r^;;^ matter. 

Thus, if mind was a product of brain cells in 
the same sense as bile is a product of liver cells, 
we would expect to recognize a parallelism or an- 
alogy either In the development of events or in the 
conditions of results, otherwise there could be no 
illustration, no analogy. But if we compare cell 
products with mental factors, we see on the one 
hand that all cell products are sooner or later dis- 



GENERAL CONSIDERATION. II 

charged and destroyed, and add nothing to the 
power of forming more, while on the other hand 
we see that the contents of mind are permanent 
acquisitions, everything being retained to add to 
the power for acquiring more. We know that re- 
mote and insignificant experiences may return to 
consciousness after an interval during which the 
brain may have changed matter many times, so 
great is its blood supply and so active is its meta- 
bolism. 

It is thus evident that the tests of time and space 
(change and tangibility) — the two ever present and 
essential conditions of matter and energy — do not 
apply to the contents of mind, for while in the one 
case we have the transient and tangible, in the 
other case we have the permanent but intangible. 

Indeed, if mind was a mere cell product, such a 
thing as memory could not exist, for every so- 
called * 'phosphorescent, " deposit, "memory im- 
age" or sort of boxed impress would stand outside 
the physical economy if it did not share in the dissi- 
pation produced by the ceaseless chemic changes 
required by the organic law of supply and de- 
mand. 

Again, to assume that reminiscences emanate 



12 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

from cells in wave-like radiations to a coordinating 
point, would imply the existence of an elaborating 
entity beyond the brain. The same is true in 
supposing that sensory impressions upon the cells 
remained like dents upon a phonographic cylinder, 
creating the necessity for a special, controlling, 
outside agency to make them respond to the exi- 
gencies of life. Indeed, how could the brain, 
being a double organ, produce a unit, as mind is, 
by radiating subtle energies from its cell contents, 
unless there existed a unifying entity — an elabor- 
ating, concerting — and, by necessity, a metaphys- 
ical power? In fact, if brain matter was the source 
of the ideational process, or in any way the basis of 
it, the destruction of any portion would result in 
some form of mental blank enduring forever, 
for the coordinate cannot arise from the incoor- 
dinate any more than the living from the dead, or 
the existent from the non-existent. 

While sensory impressions doubtless in some 
way affect brain cells, i.e., create reactions, and 
thus produce some kind of result or modified state 
in the cells, we have no reason to assume that 
the results are anything more than functional ex- 
altations or depressions, for the brain can have a 



GENERAL CONSmERATION. 1^ 

conditioaing and sympathetic influence only as a 
medium of action, sensory and motor. 

The theory that complexity of thought requires 
the activity of a corresponding number of brain 
cells needs the support of facts, while so far as we 
know (excepting microcephales) brain cells are 
both structurally and numerically alike in high and 
lowly peoples — the savage and the sage — the kin- 
dergarten and the senate. And how often do we 
find great minds with small brains and common 
minds with large brains? The fact of microcepha- 
lic idiocy is not a pertinent illustration here, as 
the mind in that state is congenitally fettered. 
But complexity of thought is so evidently depend- 
ent upon the nature, number and relating of ideas 
directed to a purpose, that it is not certain that brain 
cells enter into the problem at all, as chapter iv. 
strongly suggests. For all we know, sleep maybe our 
time of greatest mental activity, as many dif^cult 
problems are solved unconsciously, and multitudes 
of daily cares are nightly adjusted. 

Another obvious principle is overlooked by 
materialists. It is a biologic axiom that function 
precedes organization, for while we may also say 
that necessity develops function in much the same 



14 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

sense, that we say it is the mother of invention, it 
is evident that the use of means to a given end 
implies the pre-existence of a specific potentiality, 
having a plan in the abstract, for only the pre- 
existing can be the cause of a necessity. Thus it 
follows that something of a mind must exist before 
a brain can be formed. 

To a certain extent, mind and brain so evidently 
develop along parallel lines, or rather by reacting 
steps, that the state of the one conditions something 
of the action of the other, as master and servant, 

That some thinkers cannot conceive of mind ex- 
isting apart from brain, is simply due to their habit 
of thought, for it is nevertheless a fact that per- 
sonalities stand apart from physical features and 
that we know them best when somatic conditions 
are associated the least. Do we not distinguish 
between the lovable personality and the repulsive 
form, while we find criminal characters with at- 
tractive features? While the association of per- 
sonality with brain or body is simply a habit, to 
conceive of mind existing apart from a fitting en- 
vironment is a very different thing. 

The materialistic theory of mind is a natural 
child of the current evolution idea, the greatest 



GENERAL CONSIDERATION. I 5 

delusion of the 19th century. It is a product of 
patch work and suggestion, and it not only creates 
more mysteries than it can seem to solve, but it is 
absolutely incompatible with law and order. We 
observe that laws of nature are immutable, or else 
chaos would result, and thus whatever is poten- 
tial in plan must be specific in character, i. e., 
unalterable in essential characteristics or affinity 
qualities. All entities are therefore immutable as 
laws, are not separable from them, but are identical 
with their properties. Nor can they lose their in- 
trinsic properties unless it is also a law that laws 
are not necessarily immutable, which is a rediictio 
ad abs2crdum. 

Thus development is the intrinsic law of life, 
which with the extrinsic complement (environ- 
ment) gives extension and expansion along lines 
of affinity limited by the specific character of the 
entity. 

The theory twin to evolution is atavism, which 
implies a reversion to an organic state level with 
a lower biologic type, and which the so-called 
''stygmata of degeneracy" are regarded as signs 
and symptoms. But such a view is contradicted 
by facts far more fundamental in character. Vir- 



1 6 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

chow and others have shown that individuals with 
ape-like brains are not only destitute of the mental 
characteristics of the ape, but possess every char- 
acteristic of the human mind (see page 84). And 
when we find that individuals have filled the busi- 
ness and social functions of life in the ordinary 
way, who were either destitute of a corpus callosnm 
(see page 65) or had but little more than half a 
brain (see page 62), it is evident that external 
features are not necessarily of fundamental signifi- 
cance. 

While physical defects and deformities are mostly 
found where we mostly find mental and moral ir- 
regularities, it is not because the one group of facts 
are expressive of the other, but simply because 
psychic and somatic evils usually co-exist in pre- 
natal environment, as they also do elsewhere. In 
post-natal or extended environment, the psychic 
evils may be either increased or reduced while the 
physical forms remain. Thus it is that in every- 
day life, mental and moral qualities are seen to 
have no regular relationship to anatomical features. 

It has been observed that among feeble-minded 
children there are types which resemble foreign 
races, as the Malay, Mongolian, Negro and North 



GENERAL CONSIDERATION. 1 7 

American Indian. But the same may be observed 
among the ordinary population in London or New 
York, or even in any large crowd. Indeed resem- 
blances to such types are too frequently observ- 
able among our best citizens to suggest atavism in 
humbler people, even if we believed that races 
inferior in civilization were also biologically lower, 
which we know is not the case. 

When we speak of disease as causing mental or 
moral obliquity, we simply mean to imply that 
without a morbid physiologic state the particular 
thoughts or acts would not have arisen under the 
given circumstances, while we recognize that every 
form of delinquency is traceable to a moral cause 
in its last analysis, either as an egotistic rebellion 
to first principles or a traduction by personal in- 
fluences, operating directly or indirectly. 

The remarkable results in character change ob- 
tained by home and foreign missions, present an 
array of "clinical" facts, so to speak, which dem- 
onstrate the power of ideational substitution over 
morbid habits and physiologic states, and also that 
the term incurable relates to means and skill 
rather than the nature of maladies. 

One suggestion more. It is axiomatic that the 



1 8 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

origin, plan and purpose of anything cannot be 
comprehended by an intelhgence of a lower level 
than the character of its cause. The lesser does 
not comprehend the greater, nor is the co-ordinate 
the co-equal. Yet men demand to know, and 
some men even declare they do know, the origin 
and plan of creation. Such egotism carries in its 
presumptions the elements of its own destruction; 
by turning hope into fatalism, misconduct into mis- 
fortune, and the moral aspect of life into a stupid 
delusion. 



CHAPTER II. 

BRAIN CELLS AND THEIR RELATIONS. 

The nervous matter of the body is arranged in 
ganglia (cell-groups), cords and plexuses (networks) 
forming two systems, viz: the cerebro-spinal and 
the sympathetic. The cerebro-spinal system has 
to do with the receptive and expressive functions 
of life — those most directly subservient to mind 
requirements, viz: the sensory organs and voluntary 
muscles, while the sympathetic system is in imme- 
diate charge of the functions performed by the 
organs of digestion, secretion, circulation, respira- 
tion, elimination and reproduction. But some 
nerves distributed to the organs connected with 
the sympathetic system come directly frOtn the 
cerebro-spinal system; also the lungs, the heart 
and the upper and lower parts of the alimentary 
canal receive nerves directly from it, and those 
organs which are not directly connected with the 

(19) 



20 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

cerebro-spinal system receive fibers derived origin- 
ally from it through their sympathetic plexuses. 
On the other hand, some of the nerves arising from 
the cerebro-spinal system within the brain, have a 
close affinity with fibers from the sympathetic sys- 
tem (Quain) and it seems impossible, even with the 
aid of the microscope, to distinguish between the 
sensory and the secretory-motor fibers within the 
glandular organs (i); while, according to Foster, in 
all organs in the normal state, except the skin and 
nervous system, stimulation fails to affect conscious- 
ness, but in an abnormal condition, consciousness 
is affected by a sense of pain (2). Thus it is evi- 
dent that the division of the two great systems of 
nerves is not at all points distinct. 

The brain not only comprises the central ganglia 
of the cerebro-spinal system, but also a portion of 
the sympathetic system, although most of the fibers 
of the sympathetic system connect with the brain as 
constituents of the roots of certain of the cerebro- 
spinal nerves and thus they have only an indirect 
connection with the brain. The cerebro-spinal sys- 
tem of nerves comprises a series of symmetrical 
pairs, twelve of which issue from separate apertures 
at the base of the skull and are known as cranial 



BRAIN CELLS AND THEIR RELATIONS. 2 I 

nerves. They have to do with the special senses 
and the numerous muscles of the head, face, mouth, 
throat, etc. The pair next below these make their 
exit between the base of the skull and the atlas 
bone, while the remaining thirty pairs of nerves 
all issue below the successive segments of the 
spinal column. 

The part of the brain which has been most studied 
is its gray-matter covering or cortex, which entirely 
surrounds its hemispheres except at their points of 
union. Owing to the peculiar formation of the 
brain into convolutions or gyri, which form more 
or less deep infolds or fissures, the deepest of which 
serve to divide the brain into lobes, only about one- 
third of the cortex appears externally. The thick- 
ness of the cortex varies at different locations and 
points, ranging from 1.5 to 4 mm. Toward the 
front of the brain, and especially at the summit of 
the pre-central convolution, in what is commonly 
known as the sensory-motor area, the cortex is not 
only the thickest, but its cells are the largest, while 
in the visual areas at the back of the brain the cor- 
tex is the thinnest it is also the densest (3). 

While minute but very elastic blood-vessels and 
lymphatic canals exist in great abundance within 



22 



BRAIN IN 



lOM TO MIMD. 



the cortex, irs : r.s: r:c:::s :: chief interest are the 
cells of various forms which ire 5:i::oned in a more 




M.Pl. 






»~ V 



p? 






So^jiy. P?. 



xus. .-i. s//-. Stratum of 



or less orderly arranorement of layers, the number 
of which is variously estimated at from three to 



eiorht, while five is the number usually imputed. 
While Gol^, Cajal, Goltz, Von K*:»elliker and most 





MP AT 
^ m r/ I # A- 




,idai 



Other investieators aoree th 



5 of the cortex 



having different functions show throughout essen- 



24 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

tially the same structure, Flechsig- asserts he has 
found a form of cell peculiar to one location, viz., 
the large spindle cell of Branca in the gyrus for- 
nicatus. 

A microscopic view of a cross-section of the cor- 
tex reveals what much resembles a forest of up- 
rooted shrubs in winter bud, and associated with 
other forms of cells variously named, spindle, spider, 
neurogliar, molecular and granular, according to 
their forms. 

The shrub-like cell, which is usually the largest, 
is called the pyramidal cell, owing to the commonest 
form of its cell-body or bulb, which is said to be 
sometimes visible to the naked eye (4). As many 
as twenty processes or dendrons may grow from a 
single cell-body, the chief one growing in the direc- 
tion of the surface. Some of these dendrons have 
many branches, which all grow at acute angles to 
the main stem. The tiny bud-like processes upon 
these tree-like branches are supposed to be the 
points of contact and communication with other 
cells, and to generate or receive energy or impulses 
from surrounding matter. 

From a point in the cell-body, usually opposite 
the main dendron, there projects at least one pro- 



BRAIN CELLS AND THEIR RELATIONS. 25 

cess or neuron which also gives off branches, but 
fewer and at right angles to the main stem, while 
the main stem passes into the white substance of 
the brain and onward to a near-by or remote point 
within the brain or spinal cord. These neurons are 
the first processes which develop from the cell- 
bodies. But, while the cell-body is parent to both 
dendron and neuron, it eventually sustains no more 
structural relationship to them than that of propin- 
quity, for these two offshoots join ends to form 
what appears to be a cylindric rod, containing as 




Fig 3. — Section of nerve-fibers showing the tubular appearance of 
the fibrils of the axis-cylinder (after Schilefer.) 

many as fifty fibrils (19) which pass through the cell- 
body without interruption. Because of this struc- 
tural development it is supposed that impulses do 
not originate in the cell-body, but in or at the buds 
of the dendrons. The cell-body, however, seems 
to remain the vital centre. The cell in its com- 
pleteness — bulb, neurons and dendrons — appears to 
constitute an isolated anatomic unit, which associ- 



26 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



> 



ates but does not fuse with other cells or fibers, 
although its dendrons may extend to the surface 
of the cortex, and its neurons as far as the lumbar 
region of the spinal cord. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELL. 

Within the first month of embryonic develop- 
ment, and while the brain resembles a distorted 
tube with here and there a bulge, the cortical cells 
have begun to appear as minute spheric objects, 





Fig. 4 — Diagram of sympathetic ganglion-cell (Retzius). 

each of which develops a nucleus which contains 
one or two minuter bodies or nucleoli. These cells 
rapidly divide, one daughter cell remaining as the 
germinal cell, while the other migrates to become 
a fully fledged nerve-cell (5). This process goes 
on for about two months, after which the cells seem- 
ingly cease to multiply, but gradually increase in 
size from i to 500 times or more (6). They do not 
obtain their full growth until puberty or after, when 
the largest may measure at their base y^-u- of an 



BRAIN CELLS AND THEIR RELATIONS. 



27 



inch in diameter and four or five times' more in 
length, while its neurons and dendrons have made 
proportional gain in length and thickness. Neurons 




Fig. 5— Sensory and motor brain-cells — showing their interrelation 
as afferent and efferent neurons to the cortex, according to the idea of 
Cajal. 

which at birth measure in diameter from 1.2 or 
2 M to 7 or 8 /", become at maturity 10 to 1 5 ^t respect- 
ively for the largest (7). The number of cells in 
o. I cubic mm. varies from five or six to ninety, but 
generally from ten to twenty, or more than three 
and a half billions in a brain, and constituting about 
one-tenth its total weight (5). 



2 8 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

The neurons and dendrons gradually become en- 
veloped in a fine medullary sheath which is regarded 
as both insulating- and nutritive in its functions. 
Only a small proportion of the nerve-fibers of the 
cerebro-spinal system have no sheaths, while on 
the other hand very few of the fibers of the sympa- 
thetic system have any sheaths whatever. Some 
fibers of the sympathetic system do not functionate 
until they possess a sheath, and some do not have 
a sheath until late in middle life and most have 
none even then. But all sheathed fibers are ex- 
posed at their extremities. 

Some cells seem never to develop beyond their 
first stage, while the lifetime of an individual cell 
may be co-extensive with the life of the person, for 
as Virchow observes, ''all cells destined for the 
highest animal functions prove sterile, or at least 
very hypothetically capable of proliferation " (8). 
However, proliferation of brain-cells has lately 
been observed in some mature lower animals (9), 
while the '* fungus" growths following injuries of 
the brain contain brain tissues (10), thus showing 
either a rapid proliferation or a rapid maturing of 
undeveloped cells, for it is a recognized histologic, 
as well as a pathologic law, that cells can only pro- 



BRAIN CELLS AND THEIR RELATIONS. 29 

duce cells which are identic with them in constitu- 
tion and function (8). 

The brain-cells are very elastic and resistant to 
pressure, requiring considerable force to destroy 
their contour and break their processes (4). In 
their bulbs a small amount of yellow pigment is 
normally found, and which is supposed to represent 
bygone functional activity. This pigment is usually 
absent in idiots and imbeciles. The rest of the cell- 
body is composed of granular matter surrounding 
the nucleus. Brain-cells discharge impulses at the 
rate of ten per second (11), with a speed, according 
to Hammond, of 100 to 120 feet per second for 
motor nerves and about 24 feet per second for vis- 
ceral nerves, while all nerves are capable of con- 
ducting impulses in either direction. 

CHEMIC COMPOSITION. 

From a chemic point of view, the ingredients of 
the brain are more numerous, more intricately con- 
stituted and more diversified than those of any 
other organ or system. It contains more than three 
hundred different chemic constituents, and those 
peculiar to the brain are endowed with great sta- 
bility in a chemic sense and with great sensitiveness 
to reacting influences from without (12). 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



In gray matter there is 85 per cent, water and i 
per cent, ash, while in white matter there is only 
70 per cent, water and 1.7 per cent. ash. The aver- 
age specific gravity of gray matter is 1034 and for 
white matter 1041 (13). In the insane the average 
(thirty cases all kinds) is for white matter the same 
as normal, but for gray matter it is 1037, or a trifle 
heavier than in the sane (3). 

VASCULAR SUPPLY OF THE CORTEX. 

In its supply of blood-vessels the cortex is inde- 
pendent of the other parts of the brain, and it is 
said that it can maintain its functional activity even 
when three of its four arteries are obliterated. Au- 
topsies upon cases of sudden death not infrequently 
disclose the fact that owing to obstructive organic 
disease of the heart, a greatly reduced circulation 
of blood has sufficed to maintain the requirements 
of the brain for ordinary purposes. 

Unlike other arteries of the body the arteries of 
the brain rarely fuse together. It has been thought 
that they were devoid of nerve-fibers, but that has 
been disproved by Oberstiner, Morison (14) and 
others. It has also been observed that when the 
other arteries of the body are calcified by disease 
the arteries of the brain remain soft and yielding 



BRAIN CELLS AND THEIR RELATIONS. 



31 



(15). The vast number of small blood-vessels and 
capillaries within the brain not only afford it a liberal 
supply of nutriment, but serve as an elastic padding 
to the cells and fibers, which are supported in posi- 




FiG. 6. — Alcoholic degeneration of the cortical nerve-cells — various 
stages. 

tion by an abundance of fine connective tissue, 
which, with the blood-vessels, constitute about one- 
fourth of the entire brain mass (5). 

GROWTH AND DECLINE OF THE BRAIN. 

At birth the brain weighs about 12 per cent, of 
the whole body or an average of 340 gm. for males 
and 330 gm. for females. It is, therefore, nearly 
one-fourth its size at maturity, at which time it 



32 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

weighs only about 2 per cent, of the whole body. 
During the first nine months after birth the brain 
gains about one-third its whole increase and by the 
eighth or ninth year it has attained nearly its full 
growth. (16) Dr. Robert Boyd found that the brains 
of boys between the ages of 4 and 7 weighed on an 
average 12 14 gm., and about the same for girls; 
but boys between 7 and 14 years of age gave an 
average brain weight of 1410 gm., while girls be- 
tween the same years gave an average brain weight 
of only 1265 gm. ( 1 7) These children were from the 
poor of London. According to Fuchs and Vulpius, 
the brain is not fully organized until 7 or 8 years of 
age, at which stage its growth makes a pause until 
puberty, when it again makes a rise. Donaldson 
has pointed out that the curve for brain weight 
ordinarily shows a rise until the age of 55 years, 
while in the case of eminent men it shows a rise 
until 65 years of age, when it begins to decline (18.) 
After birth the most active period of brain growth 
is during the first four years. 

The babe at birth is physiologically but little 
more than a ' ' spinal thing, " as Virchow long since 
termed it when its brain structure was much less 
known than now. At this stage but little else than 



BRAIN CELLS AND THEIR RELATIONS. 33 

the spinal cord and medulla contain perfected nerve- 
fibers, which gradually extend upward to meet those 
developing from the cortex. According to Flech- 
sig, those from the bodily-sense area of the cortex 
appear first and are followed by the appearance of 
fibers for the sense of smell. A month or so later 
the fibers for vision organize, and by about the 
third month after birth the fibers for the sense of 
hearing and volitional acts begin to mature. 

In adults the increase of the brain is due to the 
growth of the cortical cells, the embryonic cells, 
and the other related structures. In old age the 
cells become heavily pigmented, while they atrophy, 
and many of the fibers are substituted by connective 
tissue. In senile dementia the spider cells increase 
in number. According to Althus, deaths from nerv- 
ous diseases (excluding infant eclampsia) are only 
7 per cent, and a large proportion of these are 
primarily due to diseases of the blood-vessels. 
Thus it is evident that while in health it suffers the 
least of all organs from a general starvation, it also 
suffers the least from disease. Its reparative and 
adaptive powers are greatest before the cells and 
fibers are fully formed, when broken fibers may 
unite and new fibers develop. 



CHAPTER III. 

THEORY OF SENSORY AND MOTOR CENTERS. 

From the cells of the cortex fibers are distributed 
in all directions. Some go but a short distance to 
cinother part of the cortex in the same hemisphere, 
while others extend farther on. Some cross over 
(through the corpus callosum) to the cortex of the 
opposite hemisphere, e.g., the visual sphere of one 
side connecting with the auditory and other spheres 
of the opposite side, while other fibers pass into 
lower ganglia or onward to cross over to the oppo- 
site side below the medulla from whence they ex- 
tend to points within the spinal cord, where they 
end in twiglets which clasp hands, so to speak (but 
do not unite), with other twiglets from nerve cells 
in the spinal cord. From these spinal cells other 
nerve-fibers arise which extend to the various organs 
of the body — the skin, muscles, glands, etc. 

Only about one-third of the cortex of the brain 

(34) 



THEORY OF SENSORY AND MOTOR CENTERS. 



35 



seems to be in direct relation with the nerve tracts 
which cover the excitations of the periphery of the 
body, the bodily-sense fibers as described by Flech- 
sig, and those fibers which conduct the impulses to 




Fig. I. — Motor nerve-cell connecting with muscle (after Edinger). 

the muscles. The remaining- two-thirds or so-called 
'* silent areas " of the brain, areas which do not re- 
spond to experimental stimulations, or which pro- 
duce no special motor or sensory disturbances when 
damaged, have therefore been supposed to be more, 
especially subservient to intellectual operations. 



36 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



The "association" bands of fibers vary in size 
and functional service, as well as in their order of 
development. Those connected with the sense of 
bodily needs (hunger, thirst, etc.) are, according to 
Flechsig, the first to complete organization within 




Fig. 2. — Indicating Flechsig's localization of brain centers. 

the brain, while those connected with the special 
sense of smell develop later, or at the time of birth. 
By a month more the nerve-fibers for vision begin 
to mature, while it is another month before the or- 
ganization of the fibers for the sense of hearing 
takes place. Last of all to organize are the so-called 
'•silent areas " which even three months after birth 



THEORY OF SENSORY AND MOTOR CENTERS. 37 

possess but few axis cylinders or sheathed fibers (2). 
But the development of fibers in the cortex, espe- 
cially those originating in the first layer and ex- 
tending parallel with it, is still in active process as 
late as the thirty-ninth year (3), while millions of 
undeveloped cells and fibers exist in old age (4). 

According to Flechsig, the area of bodily sensa- 
tion is much richer in association bands than are 
the other sensory organs. It is a sensory-motor 
area, and was formerly designated the * ' motor 
area " by experimentalists. It sends out numerous 
long bands of fibers into the middle of the great 
association centre, especially a large one to the 
outer surface and base of the temporal lobe. Flech- 
sig says this band is distinguished from all others 
by its late development. 

While the various areas of the brain are regarded 
as but highways of ingress and egress to the gen- 
eral cortex, every part of which has a wide range 
of association, directly or indirectly, it sometimes 
seems that damage to the brain more or less sud- 
den affects mental action in a more or less special 
way according to its location and extent and whether 
jr not the cells and the association fibers are both 
involved. 



38 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



The peculiar affections of memory, or rather of 
recollection, which are classed as aphasias, some 
times seem to be due to localized affections of the 
sense centers or their connections, producing an 
uncompensated loss of an established and special 
physiologic correlate to a subtle mental process. 
Such localized affections, however, can only be 




Fig. 3 — Showing the anatomical and hypothetical brain centers (8) 

causative through a peculiar suggestive influence 
which in a negative or sub-conscious way inhibits 
ideational associations along special lines. For ex- 
ample, damage to the cells of a visual area may 
produce inability to recognize familiar objects by 
name, and thus cause a confusion of words and 
ideas, but otherwise the conduct of the subject may 
remain normal. But if the visual ''association" 
fibers are affected, the result may be "mind-blind- 



THEORY OF SENSORY AND MOTOR CENTERS. 39 

ness, " or the inability to recognize familiar objects. 
If the cells of the auditory area are injured percep- 
tive "word-deafness" may result, and if their ''asso- 
ciation" fibers are involved, "mind-deafness" or the 
inability to recognize the meaning of words heard, 
may result. In like manner damage to the speech 
center may produce inability to express words, while 
damage to the sense area for smell may pervert or 
abolish the faculty for smelling. 




Fig. 4. — Showing areas of the brain which, when diseased, may 
cause (i) loss of power to write, (2) mind-blindness, (3) loss of speech, 
(4) mind-deafness, (5) loss of sight, (6) loss of smell. 

But these phenomena seem to have much the 
same psycho-physiologic explanation as do halluci- 
nations, viz., inhibition, or perversion along special 
memory lines or associating qualities of ideas 
with perversion or destruction of their correlated 
sense organs. Indeed, so subtle in their operation 



40 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

are the laws of the mind that through perverting 
conditions certain groups of memory signs may be 
remembered, while others next them in time or 
space may be entirely forgotten for the time being. 
For example, a person may be able to speak and 
write numerals to some extent, while he has forgot- 
ten the alphabet, because numerals are associated 
by the stronger law (so to speak), as they repre- 
sent the simplest kind of natural relationship in 
order and space — an evolutionary order or system- 
atic proportion of one quality, whereas the alphabet 
is an artificial association of differing qualities. 

A common and suggestive illustration of the 
perverting influence of the brain upon the less nat- 
ural or later acquired habits of mind is observable 
in the proneness of many foreign-born Americans 
to revert to their native language when indulging 
in intoxicating drinks in English-speaking company, 
although for many years they may have been speak- 
ing English most of the time. Thus, as in the case 
of insanity proper, the most natural and earliest es- 
tablished habits persist the longest with the subject. 

All mental defects whatever are correlative to 
abnormal or inefficient brain-cell reaction while, on 
the other hand, brain-cells can not in any way hold 



THEORY OF SENSORY AND MOTC)R CENTERS. 4 1 

memory images or sensory impressions of any kind, 
as every new impression must destroy the preced- 
ing, even if there was not a constant chemic change 
going on within them. Certain toxic drugs, espe- 
cially those belonging to the order of Atropa- 
caea, can produce aphasias and insanity. 

Defective functioning of the brain-cells is ex- 
pressed by sensory, motor and intellectual irregu- 
larities or inefficiencies. As abnormal conditions 
of the cells connected with the special senses must 
necessarily deliver wrong impressions at their cen- 
tric ends in the brain, and thus discharge a wrong 
suggestive influence on the mind, the result is a 
misinterpretation or hallucination, but which may 
be corrected if the brain-cells in general are not too 
inefficient to preclude the requisite amount of atten- 
tion (reasoning) to secure the correction. Illusions 
have the particular factor of expectancy, conscious 
or subconscious, in reference to a particular exter- 
nal object. 

Delusions are due to a more or less general in- 
efficiency of the brain-cells, reducing the vital en- 
ergy below what is required for effective attention 
or the proper association of related ideas, while the 
character of the delusions, whether exalted or de- 



4^ 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



pressed, will depend not only upon the character 
and environment of the subject but also upon those 
particular bodily organs (especially the glands) 



CtlZjC^T^/^/'u^ 




Fig. 5. — Horizontal section through the brain (after Edinger) showing 
the relation of some of the ganglia and the internal capsule through 
which the sensory-motor fibers from the cortex pass on their way 
downwards. On the outer side of the internal capsule is the corpus 
striatum, and on the inner side is the optic thalamus. 

most perverted in function. All bodily organs have 
their special suggestive influence upon the mind 



THEORY OF SENSORY AND MOTOR CENTERS. 43 

through their neural centers in the brain, for in this 
way they constantly influence our feelings so that 
by their normal and harmonious action the sense 
of well-being is experienced. 

The great difference in the personalities of the 
two sexes, among normal individuals, must be due 
to differences in the functional character of their 
end-organs outside the brain, since the brain itself 
exhibits no sex characteristics whatever, either in its 
cells or architecture, a fact which is in harmony with 
the observation that common normal types of both 
sexes exhibit intellectual, moral and emotional qual- 
ities in very different proportions. Indeed, the 
cause and treatment of insanity are as a rule chiefly 
matters of glandular concern — of digestion, secre- 
tion and elimination. Idiopathic insanity or toxic 
insanities have no other pathology distinctive ex- 
cept in their final stages. 

The brain requires regular sleep and food, but 
especially sleep. Dogs, which can live for twenty 
days without food, can not live more than five days 
without sleep (4). Man's limit of endurance with- 
out sleep is estimated at ten days. Some persons, 
especially seamen, soldiers and nurses, can sleep 
for a few minutes at a time and awaken at any 



44 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

irregular hour desired. Before a great event with 
great anxiety, sleep comes, and it has been known 
to be so intense that a foot has been burnt to a 
cinder without realization of the fact until after- 
ward (5). Sleep is thought to be due to a retrac- 
tion of the dendron buds, thus breaking contact, and 
so interrupting or enfeebling the circuits of vitality 
between motor and sensory cells. That such an 
action is caused by an overloading of waste matter 
resulting from fatigue is quite unlikely, for in sound, 
normal sleep the circulation is greatly reduced in 
volume and force, indicating a corresponding reduc- 
tion of metabolism and general functional activity. 
Normal sleep would rather seem to be due simply 
to the more or less exhaustion of the cells having 
an inherent demand for the restoration of their 
reacting power. The brain-cells can not be regard- 
ed as reservoirs of vital energy, but their power to 
react must correspond with their energizing effi- 
ciency, dependent upon nutrition as occasions de- 
mand, the demand being constant but fluctuating. 

BASAL GANGLIA. 

As yet but little is known of the corpus striatum, 
the optic thalamus and the corpus quadrigeminum. 
Lesions of the corpus striatum produce paralysis of 



THEORY OF SENSORY AND MOTOR CENTERS. 45 

the Opposite side of the body without mental symp- 
toms; lesions of the optic thalamus produce loss or 




Fig 6 — Diagram illustrating the general plan of distribution of the 
nerve-fibers of the brain to the spinal cord and between the hemispherts 
and parts thereof; (2) corpus callosum; (3) optic thalamus; (4) corpus 
striatum; (5) claustrum; (6) sensory-motor fibers passing through the 
internal capsule from the cortex of the brain to the spinal cord; (7) pons; 
(8) medulla; (g) spinal cord. 

impaired sensation of the opposite side of the 
body (6). Monokow believes every part of it is con- 



46 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

nected with some part of the cortex (7), and accord- 
ing to the same authority it contains numerous cell 
bundles not found in the brains of lower animals. 
Lesions of the corpus quadrigeminum commonly 
produce blindness. Sterling and Landois regard it 
as a co-ordinating center. The cerebellum appears 
as functionally homogeneous. Lesions of it produce 
defects of muscular movement, while sensation re- 
mains intact, and instinct and intellect are unaffect- 
ed. Each half controls mainly the muscles of its 
own side. The pons and medulla contain numer- 
ous gray-matter bodies regarded as internodes, 
some of which are peculiar to the human brain. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 

The region of the brain most subservient to in- 
tellectual development is yet a matter of specula- 
tion, although the frontal lobes have been regarded 
by many as being in some way the psychic center. 
Disease of these lobes has been charged with caus- 
ing intellectual perversions, character debasements 
and even delusions of grandeur. But that such 
conditions are neither peculiar to diseases of the 
frontal lobes nor necessarily connected with them, 
can be clearly shown. 

Dr. E. W. Taylor reports a man, 36 years of age, 
with extensive destruction of the left frontal lobe 
of the brain, and yet, says Dr. Taylor: "When I 
last saw him the whole impression was that of a 
clear-headed vigorous man of exceptional intellect, 
but neurasthenic. A few days before his death 
he was filling a responsible position, and making 

(47) 



7 2- 



48 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



decisions of importance with accuracy and judg- 
ment." (i) The celebrated case of Gage need not 




Fig. I. — Illustrating Dr. Taylor's case of diseased frontal lobes 
of the brain with complete mental integrity. Shaded area indicates the 
location and extent as seen-from the outside. Disease extended through 
the hemisphere and down to the corpus callosum. 

be overlooked, in which a crow-bar was driven into 
his left cheek and passed out through the crown of 
his forehead while engaged at blasting. He imme- 
diately climbed into a wagon and rode home, where 
the doctor found him sitting upright in a chair, and 
apparently in full possession of his mental faculties. 
He afterwards lived twelve years, earning his living 
as a coachman and barnhand (2). 

In this connection one of Bianchi's later experi- 
ments on monkeys will be of interest: 

An adult domesticated female cynocephalus, 
whose habits, dispositions and peculiarities had 



THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 



49 



been carefelly noted for a long time, was deprived 
of her pre-frontal lobes as indicated in Fig. 3. Two 
months and more after this the mental change in 
her is described in the main as follows : 

''Her physiognomy has become stupid and less 




Fig. 2, — Illustrating the Gage case. (After Biglow.) 

mobile; expression of eyes uncertain and cruel and 
devoid of any flashes of intelligence, curiosity, or 
sociability. She shows terror even by shrieks and 
gnashing of teeth, when threatened and hurt, but 
never reacts aggressively. She is in a state of un- 
rest. When placed in a large closed room she 
walks aimlessly around, and always in the same 



50 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

direction, without stopping near any object or per- 
son. Any action done with apparent purpose re- 
mains incomplete, unfinished; if she runs towards 
a door she stops near it, goes back, runs to the door 
again, and so on several times. She shows no affec- 
tion or gratefulness to people whom she previously 
loaded with caresses as these animals are wont to 
do; she does not seem to know them, though they 
are ever ready to attend to her wants. Whenever 
approached for a caress she shows fear. When the 
attendant brings food or fruit she comes near and 
violently seizes the object with avidity. None of 
her former friends can now caress her any longer. 
She is unsociable with the other monkeys; does not 
play; cannot overcome the least difficulties in her 
way by new adaptations, nor learn anything new, 
nor recover what she has forgotten. She picks up 
and takes to her mouth whatever she comes across. 
She is, however, somewhat cleaner. The sexual 
instinct seems to be present, but the periods are 
less regular and abundant. She occasionally mani- 
fests impulses of cruelty quite foreign to her kind. 
One day while she was menstruating another female 
cynocephalus came near her. She at once mani- 
fested her desire; but finding the other unable to 



THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 5 1 

satisfy it, she attacked her companion so furiously 
that she would have killed her if the keeper, armed 
with a stick, had not at once interfered. Later her 
movements became stereotyped. She walks about, 
sits, looks for parasites all over the body, and re- 
mains indifferent to everything except the sight of 
her food, and no longer expresses desires peculiar 




Fig. 3 — The brain of Prof Bianchi's monkey, after ablation of its 
pre-frontal convolutions. Operation made in front of the roots of the 
frontal convolutions, nearly corresponding to the pre-frontal sulcus. 

to the time of menstruation. She has no sensory 
defects, and discrimination somewhat improves" (3). 
The case reported by Drs. Starr and Van Gieson, 
(4) and one reported by myself (5), had each exten- 
sive destruction of both pre-frontal lobes, and yet 
neither of the subjects exhibited any mental aber- 



52 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

ration aside from slow ideation, as manifested by 
slow replies to questions, and a consequent indif'- 
ference, more or less, to some things of natural 
interest. Both were women alike in ages. 

In the normal brained monkey deprived of both 
pre-frontai lobes (the same as those occupied by 



Fig. 4. Illustrating case reported by the author, of a double-sided 
disease of the prefrontal lobes o" the brain with mental integrity (5). 
Diagram of a longitudinal section of the left cerebral hemisphere, show- 
ing the antero-posterior extent of the tumor and some of the association 
fibers involved, as indicated by Starr. Horizontal black line below the 
front knee of the corpus callosum indicates the largest hemorrhagic area. 
It is on the left side. 

tumors in the two women referred to), we have at 
least two factors contributing to its mental perver- 
sion which did not exist in the women, viz. , (a) shock 
from a sudden loss of a great amount of energizing 
brain substance, and (b) a sense of loss of balance 
in the head from mass disproportion. In the women 
mass proportion remained just about the same while 



THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 53 

the functional disturbance in the brain from invasion 
by the tumors was produced gradually. In the 
women there was also, presumably, a pre-existing 
brain inefficiency which made the development of 




Fig. 5. Illustrating the same case as Figure 4. Front view, cross- 
section vertically through a point one inch in front of the mouth of the 
fissure of Sylvius. The tumor area extends about i inch behind the 
section and to the borders of the lateral ventricles. It occupies almost 
the whole of the white matter of the frontal lobes lying in front of the 
section. The darker areas are soft, dark-blue on reddish-brown and 
rotten tissue with hemorrhagic marks. /, //, ///. Frontal convolutions. 
BB. Olfactory bulbs. CC. Corpus callosum. GF. Gyrus fornicatus. 
CM. Calloso-marginal fissure. FO. Olfactory fissure. 

the tumors possible. We see, however, that as \\\^ 
monkey gradually loses the peculiar effect of shock 
and sense of mass disproportion, she more and 
more approaches the mental condition of the 
women who by disease had gradually and almost 
entirely lost the functional power of the lobes of 



54 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

the brain. They all three practically exhibit noth- 
ing more than a loss of energizing power, or neu- 
rasthenia. 

A case of negative evidence is reported by Dr. 
W. G. Spiller, of a girl, 13 years of age, with a 
considerable portion of the middle area of the left 
cerebral hemisphere rendered functionless by in- 
duration, but her frontal lobes were normal and 
well developed. Yet Dr. Spiller observes "she 
had only attained at the age of 13 the mental de- 
velopment of three years" (6). It is also worth 
noting that those tribes of Indians found in differ- 
ent parts of the world and known as "fiat-heads" 
from their practice of severely compressing the 
forehead in infancy, are reported by all observers 
as usually being mentally superior to neighboring 
tribes who do not practice this deformity (7). Many 
men of great intellectual ability, e. g., Sir Isaac 
Newton and Charles Darwin, had either low or re- 
ceding foreheads. 

Of late the trend of opinion favors the posterior 
lobes of the brain as being those chiefly involved 
with the higher mental processes. This view is 
based upon the following claims: First: As Gratio- 
let had pointed out, the posterior lobes are of later 



THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 55 

development in the Individual man, and thus it is 
inferred they are the least needed for the purely 
animal functions. (In apes, however, they are the 
first to develop. ) Second: They are proportionately 
more developed in man than in the lower animals, 
and they only exist in the higher vertebrates. 
Third: In intellectually lower races the postisrior 
lobes have been observed to be proportionately 
smaller; in some of the bushmen they fail to cover 
the cerebellum. Fourth: In some of the lowest 
mental grades wuthin the lines of civilization, the 
posterior lobes are the smallest, especially so 
among idiots. 

From an examination of 4,000 heads, of which 
1944 were insane, and 183 were sane. Dr. Crochley 
Clapham found the average percentage by measure- 
ment of the frontal segment of the head (ear to ear) 
to the whole circumference, to be as follows; sane, 
52.15; insane, 52.27; idiots, 52.30 (8). Professor 
Fowler and Dr. Garson are said to have found the 
same disproportion in the measurement of the skulls 
of the lower races. Dr. Clapham gives the aver- 
age proportion by weight of the frontal lobe as fol- 
lows: Idiots, 37.16; imbeciles, 37.11; all insane, 
35.99 (8). These observations are certainly sug- 



56 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

gestlve, and yet it appears that in some monkeys 
the posterior lobes of the brain extend backward 
over the cerebellum farther than they do in man (9). 

The great similarity in structure and contents of 
all parts of the cerebral cortex together with its in- 
tricate association systems of fibers, indicates that 
all parts must at least have one function in com- 
mon, viz., that of contributing to the general supply 
of vital or nerve energy, while at the same time 
every area may be more or less specialized in a co- 
operative arrangement. Goltz and Flourens find 
reason to believe that the brain is capable of func- 
tional substitution, and also that only a small part 
of it, when intact, is required for mental integrity. 
Goltz found that in dogs the removal of their parie- 
tal lobes produced the same consecutive disturb- 
ances as does the removal of the frontal lobes (10). 
This observation is in harmony with the fact that a 
very large proportion of cases operated on for 
brain tumors had no tumors or lesions at the areas 
indicated by the symptoms presented, while some 
had no brain lesions whatever as disclosed by post- 
mortem examinations (11). 

Beevor, in a recent symposium in Brain, sums 
up the evidence regarding tumors as follows: ''Tu- 



THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 57 

mors may occur without giving rise to the symp- 
toms which would be expected, and tumors may 
give rise to symptoms which are associated with 
other parts of the brain, and tumors may occur 
without giving any symptoms at all, although situ- 
ated in parts of the brain whose functions are con- 
sidered to be known" (12). 

Goltz has even found that removal of both cere- 
bral hemispheres, accomplished by stages, does 
not abolish mental action (13). From a dog he re- 
moved both hemispheres, and yet it not only lived 
until killed, eighteen months afterwards, but exhib- 
ited defects only in the manifestations of intelli- 
gence, memory, reflection, and understanding. At 
first, it was necessary to feed it by placing the food 
directly into its throat, but later it learned to eat 
and drink by simply bringing its nose in contact 
with the food. Taste to some extent seemed to 
remain, for after a little chewing of food mixed with 
quinine, it would reject it. It showed signs of hun- 
ger and thirst by restlessness after prolonged inter- 
vals of privation, and then eagerly eating the food 
when given it. It would close its eyes when a 
bright light shone upon them, but Goltz was not 
certain that any of its movements were guided by 



58 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

visual irxipressions. It slept naturally, and seemed 
to dream and could be awakened by loud noises 
and by handling. Strong, painful stimulations of 
the skin caused it to bark or growl, and even to 
snap and turn in the direction of the irritant, 
although it did not distinctly bite. It was able to 
maintain its equilibrium when one foot was placed 
upon a falling door, and it could move around on 
three legs. It could stand, walk, and run, but it 
exhibited no pleasure when caressed, nor any fear 
of threats. From such and other evidence Goltz, 
Golgi, Flourens and others deny that there are any 
definite motor or sensory areas in the brain. 

While such experiments cannot be performed on 
human beings, disease and accident in a measure 
supply the want, the following illustrations being 
forcibly pertinent: 

Case I. — Dr. E. W. Taylor reports (14) a two 
year old child with complete absence of both cere- 
bral hemispheres, though the cerebellum was well 
formed and of normal size. He remarks that the 
child had "marked mental defects," which leaves 
the inference that its mental manifestations were 
human, though imperfect. 

Case II. — Dr. Charles Phelps reports a man who 



THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 59 

died at the age of 25 years with a large abscess in 
the middle area of the left cerebral hemisphere, 
while a large proportion of both hemispheres was 
either softened or invaded with punctate hemor- 
rhages. Yet Dr. Phelps reports that this man ' ' had 
absolute integrity of all his mental faculties and 
special senses without either having aberration or 
decadence, and was cheerful and slept well" (15). 



Fig. 6. — Illustrating Drs. Putnam and Richardson's case of complete 
mental integrity with an enormous tumor occupying the left cerebral 
hemisphere as indicated by the shaded area. 

Case III.— Drs. J. J. Putnam and M. H. Richard- 
son report a business-man, 30 years of age, whose 
entire left cerebral hemisphere (except the occipital 
lobe and the lower portions of the frontal and tem- 
poral lobes) was occupied by a diseased growth, 
"which everywhere compressed the adjoining brain 
tissues and to a great extent destroyed them," and 



6o BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

yet in this man "no notable mental changes were 
observable." "His mind was clear and he read 
and understood with pleasure, and enjoyed the so- 
ciety of his family and friends," and although "he 
dragged his right leg he walked well, going to 
church and back half a mile off, and he drove his 
horse to town eight miles away, four days before 
his death" (i6). 

Case IV. — Dr. Pierce Bailey reports a carpenter 
who died at the age of 57 years, whose right cere- 
bral cortex was bereft of its cellular elements, and 
most of those that could be identified were greatly 
reduced in size, the large pyramidal cells being 
almost entirely gone, and the lumen of the cortical 
vessels being almost obliterated. A large cyst con- 
taining a straw-colored fluid occupied the frontal 
lobes of the same side. He died from pneumonia; 
yet "up to the last his speech was perfectly normal, 
reading was not interfered with, and memory was 
unaffected. He was courteous and intelligent and 
patient; he was cheerful and attentive, and his 
power of attention was very good. He read the 
papers constantly, liked to talk politics, and was 
interested in the affairs of the hospital. He was 
singularly free from periods of depression, of emo- 



THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 6 1 

tional excitement, of irritability, of apathy, or of 
any other mental manifestation so common in gross 
brain diseases. He was cleanly, and in the three 
years of daily observation upon him there was noth- 
ing whatever at any time to indicate that his char- 
acter or mental capacity was in the slightest af- 
fected" (17). 




Fig. 7. — Illustrating Dr. Bailey's case of complete mental integrity 
with destruction of the right cerebral hemisphere and a large cyst in 
the frontal lobes. 

Case V. — Dr. W. B. Haddon reports a man, 21 
years of age, with an enormous tumor occupying 
the left cerebral hemisphere, and severely com- 
pressing adjacent structures. Yet, although he oc- 
casionally had an epileptic fit and stammered slight- 
ly from childhood, he had no paralysis. He was 
somewhat opinionated, but evinced no moral per- 
version. At the time of his death (in a fit) he was 



62 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

a clerk in the Steward's office of St. Thomas' Hos- 
pital, London, and a few days later he would have 
entered the government examination for a second 
grade certificate in perspective and drawing, 
branches in which he was pronounced by experts 
to be exceptionally proficient (i8). 




Fig. 8. — Illustrating Dr. Haddon's case of an expert draughtsman 
with complete mental integrity up to his death, yet possessed of an 
enormous tumor occupying the left cerebral hemisphere and compress- 
ing all adjacent organs. Front view, cross-section of his brain. 

Case VI. — Andral reports a man who died at the 
age of 28 years with the whole of his right cerebral 
hemisphere so completely atrophied that its cover- 
ing membrane (pia mater) formed a cyst in which 
there was not a trace of brain tissue. The floor of 
the cyst was formed by the optic thalamus, the 
corpus striatum, and the parts on a level with these 



THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 63 

two bodies. Yet, says Andral, this man "had re- 
ceived a good education, had a good memory, and 
exhibited as much intelHgence as most men" (19). 

Case VII.— Drs. E. S. Boland and W. T. Whit- 
ney report a man, aged 46 years, who had a tumor 
occupying the entire breadth of the posterior part 
of the occipital lobe; yet his vision was not affected, 
as would be expected, though he at last became to 
tally blind. He lost his sense of smell without the 
brain center for smell being affected, and was totally 
paralyzed on the left side without a "motor" center 
being affected. And, although a man of excellent 
character, he became irritable and forgetful without 




Fig. 9. — Illustrating Drs. Boland and Whitney's case of tumor of the 
left occipital lobes (visual center) with mental integrity. 

the frontal lobes of his brain appearing to be in any 
way disturbed (20). 

In regard to the posterior (occipital) lobes (cen- 



64 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

ters for vision), Henchen has collected eleven cases 
in which there existed more or less extensive disease 
of these lobes without vision being affected, while 
he found fourteen cases recorded in which the same 
lobes were diseased without hemianopsia (half vis- 
ion) being produced (21). 

In regard to the visual center in the monkey 
Ferrier says. "Though the occipital lobes are in- 
cluded in the visual centers it is nevertheless a re- 
markable fact that they can be injured or cut off 
bodily almost up to the parieto-occipital fissure on 
one or both sides simultaneously without the slight- 
est appreciable impairment of vision. This fact, 
which I have already observed in my former experi- 
ments, has been completely confirmed by Professor 
Yeo and myself and also by Professors Horsley 
and Schaefer" (22). 

In regard to the psychic value of congenital mal- 
formations of the brain, we find that even an organ 
of no less importance than the corpus callosum — 
that great thick bridge of fibers extending between 
the two hemispheres of the brain and believed to 
connect all parts of both in direct relationship — is 
not an essential for mental or moral integrity, as 
the following cases will show: 



THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 65 

Case I. — Dr. Alexander Bruce reports a man of 
ordinary intelligence and good character, and who, 
for thirteen years, did the work of a porter with 
perfect satisfaction, and exhibited no notable pecu- 
liarities. Yet in this man the corpus callosum was 
completely absent (23). 




QC A. JVLp 

Fig. 10. — Illustrating Dr. Bruce's case of absent corpus callosum 
with moral and mental integrity. OX. Optic nerve. CA. Corpora 
Albicantia. OC. Optic chiasma. A. Anterior commissure. A/. Middle 
commissure. F. Posterior commissure. 

Case II. — Malinverni reports a soldier, aged 30 
years, of ordinary intelligence, but with a slight 
tendency to melancholia, who had complete absence 
of the corpus callosum (24). 

Case III. — Eichler reports a laborer, 43 years of 
age, married, diligent and capable, a good husband, 



66 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

sober and quiet, and could read and write, yet he 
had no corpus callosum, and had other important 
malformations of the brain (25). 

Case IY. — Paget reports a girl, aged 21 years, 
of fairly normal mind, trusty, competent, and of 
good character, whose corpus callosum was only 
one and one-quarter inch in length (normally it is 
about half the length of the brain), while the fornix 
and psalterium were absent (26). 

Case V. — Jolly reports a railway employe, aged 
58 years, of normal mind, whose corpus callosum 
was only one inch in length, and the fornix and 
psalterium were absent (27). 

From the evidence thus far presented, I think it 
will be admitted without argument that the brain 
possesses the capacity for functional substitution, a 
capacity that could not exist if mind and brain were 
identical. We have seen that even with both sides 
of the brain considerably damaged, mind may retain 
its integrity. Thus while mutually mind, vitality, 
and organic structure are correlated as engineer, 
energy and engine, the slips and wrecks only go to 
prove the provisional relationship existing between 
the two as cause and effect. 

Before closing this review a glance at mind and 



THEORY OF MIND LOCALIZATION. 67 

its relations in the lower animals will enhance our 
general conception. And first, it may be observed 
that even micro-organisms exhibit something of 
mental action by (a) perception of the external ob- 
ject, (d) choice made between a number of objects, 
{() perception of position in space, and (d) move- 
ments calculated either to approach the object and 
seize it or to flee from it. The earth-worm has no 
special sense organs — no eyes, no ears, nor organs 
of smell, and yet it reacts to light, sound, touch, 
and probably odor (28). Humble in the vertebrate 
scale is the amphioxus with nothing but an undiffer- 
entiated bulbous ending to its spinal cord in lieu of 
a brain, and yet it possesses will to do a great 
variety of acts (29). Higher up the scale we find 
the alert and discriminating fishes, the trout, for 
example, with no cortex to its brain; and yet fishes 
display anger, fear, jealousy, pugnacity, social, 
sexual and parental feeling much as a child four 
months old (30). Professor Mcintosh declares that 
"fishes show great and acute memory and affec- 
tion" (31). In the next step along the line of evo- 
lution (according to Hseckel and others) we are 
brought to another jump, for it is found that am- 
phibians possess a brain cortex which has two lay- 



68 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

ers of cells; and if we continue along the same line 
(phantom evolution) we must take another jump in 
cerebral structure, for it is found that in the cere- 
bral cortex of mammals there are no less than four 
layers of cells. Thus we see that comparative 
anatomy goes histology one point farther and de- 
clares that the possession of a variety of mental 
faculties — functions or modes of activity — not only 
does not depend upon a specialized brain cortex, 
but does not depend upon any cortex whatever, nor 
even on the possession of a brain. But as power 
corresponds to the means as well as the motive, the 
range of the mind's action depends upon the fitness 
and efficiency of its subservient organs in the pro- 
cess of gathering from a complex environment, so 
that, the more complex the means the more multi- 
plied are the avenues for giving and receiving — 
mind as executive, and brain as environment. 



CHAPTER V. 

BRAIN FORM IN RELATION TO MIND. 

In man the convolutions of the brain differ even 
more than do his face features, while comparative 




Fig. I. — Human brain, right hemisphere, showing the depth of the 
deepest fissures. (After Cunningham.) 

anatomy shows that no animal brain has so numer- 
ous, deep and unsymmetrical convolutions in both 
hemispheres. Parker has shown that they develop 
in an orderly manner (i), while in their early stages 

(69) 



70 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



they seem in some way to be related to the devel- 
opment of the sense organs (2). In some carnivora, 
ruminants and apes, they are strictly symmetrical 
in both hemispheres, while in some cetacea (^. ^. , 
whales) they are more numerous, but the fissures 
are only a few lines deep in many places (Bischoff). 
They apparently bear no relation to mental status, 
for some of the most stupid creatures known to us, 
as the ass, sheep and ox, are rich in convolutions, 





Fig. 2 — Brain of a one-month 
human embryo. 



Fig. 3 — Brain of a two-month 
human embryo. 



and they even exist quite distinctly in animals of a 
much lower grade in the biologic scale, as the 
echidna and macropus (2), while they are absent in 
animals which in other respects are more highly 
organized, as birds, bats, castors, squirrels, beavers 
and marmoset apes. According to Turner, in some 
natural orders, one species may have convoluted 
brains, while in another species of the same order 
there are no convolutions (2). 



BRAIN FORM IN RELATION TO MIND. "J I 




Fig. 4. — Brain of a cat; top view, frontal lobes facing upwards 
(After Ferrier.) 




Fig. 5. — Brain of a dog; top view, frontal lobes facing upwards. 
(After Ferrier). 



72 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 




Fig. 6. — Brain of a Monk monkey, showing symmetry of convolu- 
tions; top view, frontal lobes facing upwards. (After Ferrier.) 




Fig. 7. — Brain of a Howler moiikey; top view, frontal lobes facing 
upwards. (After Ferrier ) 



BRAIN FORM IN RELATION TO MIND. 73 




Fig. 8. — Brain of a sheep; left side view. (After Turner.) 




Fig. 9 — Brain of a horse; left side view, showing the fissures and 
:onvolutions. (After Turner.) 




Fig. 10. —Brain of an ox; left side view, showing the fissures and 
convolutions. (After Turner.) 



74 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

Mivart states that forms zoologically distinct are 
found to resemble each other in brain characters, 
while closely allied forms strangely differ. For 
example, the bridging convolutions in man, extend- 
ing between the parietal and occipital lobes, also 
exist in the spider monkeys, although they are ab- 
sent in most of the higher apes, while, observes 
Mivart, ''two species of sapajou (cebus) so closely 
allied as to have been treated as one species differ 
strangely from each other in this respect" (3). 
Turner observes that in the brains of mammals so 
far apart as echidna and homo, the gyrus dentatus 
has a denticulated appearance in its gray matter, 
while in most mammals it is smooth (2). This con- 
volution does not increase in size with the brain; 
e. g., in the small brain of the hedgehog it is 3 mm. 
broad, while in the very much larger brain of the 
horse it is 6 mm. (2). According to Mivart, in the 
little squirrel monkeys the occipital convolutions 
extend backwards beyond the cerebellum much 
more than they do in man. In the gibbon, chim- 
panzee and orang the third frontal convolutions are 
very slightly developed, and in the embryos of 
these animals they are the last to develop, whereas 
in man they are the first. The same is the case 



BRAIN FORM IN RELATION TO MIND. 



75 



with the temporal convolutions, which in man are 

late, but in apes they are among the first to appear. 

Benedict of Vienna claims that when the convo- 




FiG. II. — Brain of a marmoset ape; left side view. (After Turner.) 

lutions are deficient in development there is a con- 
sequent excess of fissures, which he regards as a 
fundamental defect. But it will be observed from 




Fig. 12. — Brain of a beaver; right side view. (After Cassel's Natural 
History, Vol. IV.) 

the figures presented that the brain of Gauss, the 
eminent mathematician, is decidedly excessive in 
fissures, while the brain of Chauncey Wright, an- 
other eminent mathematician, is described by Wilder 



"](> BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 




Fig. 13. — Brain of an echidna; top view, frontal lobes facing upwards. 
(After Turner.) 



Fig. 14. — Brain of a macropus, the cerebrum facing upwards and the 
cerebellum downwards. (After Turner.) 



BRAIN FORM IN RELATION TO MIND. 



11 



as being remarkable for the flatness of its convolu- 
tions, and the simplicity of its fissures, the central 
fissure (Rolandic) being completely interrupted (5), 




Fig. 15. — Brain of Gauss, the eminent mathematician, showing an 
excess of fissures. Frontal lobes facing to the left. (After R. Wagner.) 



prccentral f^ siipcnenlral f.^ central f-V central /.-Ti 



subfronlal f. 



21/ 



poslccnb ul f 



parietal f. 

occipital f 
parocapital f. 




crhital f. 
prcsyhian f j 

olfactory f. 

basiijlirian f. 

Fig. 16. — Brain of Chauncey Wright, the eminent mathematician 
and philosopher, showing unusual simplicity of convolutions and an 
interruption of the central fissure which existed on both hemispheres. 
Prof. Dwight (Harvard) describes this brain as being simpler in convo- 
lutions than that of a Venus Hottentot (a form of African idiot). (After 
Wilder.) 



78 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



as was also the case in the brain of Fuchs the phy- 
sician (6). Marshall describes the convolutions of 




Fig. 17. — Brain of Gambetta; left side view. (After M. M. Chud- 
zinski and Duval, Bulletin De La Societie Anthropologie de Paris, 1886 ) 

the brain of Grote, the historian, as ''broad, making 
the appearance of simplicity of markings " (7). 




Fig. 18. — Brain of a Hungarian carpenter, showing excessive con- 
volutions. (After Wilder.) 

Asseline, Tiedeman and Liebig are reported to 
have had small convolutions. 



BRAIN FORM IN RELATION TO MIND. 79 

Benedict has also stated that he has observed 
frequent confluence of the fissures among- some 
lower races, and an additional convolution in the 
frontal lobe. But Giacomini of Turin and others 
have shown that similar anomalies exist in normal 
brains, though less frequently. Wilder says, in 
reference to interruption of the occipital fissure in 
the human brain: "In eieht brains of moral and 
educated persons the isthmus (paroccipital) is com- 
plete on the right side in six, and on the left in only 
one. When all classes are included, of the twenty- 
six complete interruptions twenty-one are right 
and only five left. Occasionally there is an isthmus 
on both sides or only a vadum. The most common 
combination is an isthmus on the right side with a 
vadum on the left" (8). 

In 2174 hemispheres Heschl found complete in- 
terruption of the central fissure in six (17), while 
Eberstaller twice found it in two hundred brains. 
The same convolutional interruptions are observed 
in the higher apes, while in these animals the cen- 
tral fissure is relatively much longer than it is in 
man (18). 

Eichler reports a laborer, 43 years of age, in 
whom the calloso-marginal, parieto-occipital and 



8o 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



calcarine fissures were indlstmgulshable and the 
gyrus fornicatus absent or indistinguishable. In 
addition to all that, his cerebral hemispheres were 
asymmetrical, and the corpus callosum was totally 
absent. Yet Eichler says this man was married. 




Fig. 19. — Brain of Gambetta. Top view. 

diligent and capable, a good husband, sober and 
quiet, and could read and write (9). 

According to Cunningham, "The convolutions 
and sulci on the brain of a microcephalic idiot may 
assume an arrangement which approaches more 



BRAIN FORM IN RELATION TO MIND. 8 1 

closely to the ape-type than the man-type, and the 
significant point is that in these cases there is a 
mixture of these characters which are distinctive of 
a high ape with those which are characteristic of a 
low ape. The general arrangement may differ 
widely from that seen in the brain of any one ape, 
but it presents certain features which are peculiar 




Fig. 20. — Brain of a chimpanzee; top view, frontal lobes facing up- 
wards. (After Turner ) 

to an anthropoid and others which are character- 
istic of, say a baboon or a macaque. From this we 
conclude that in so far as the convolutionary ar- 
rangement is concerned the brain has reverted 
wholly or in part to a condition which existed pre- 
viously in an early stem form" (lo). The last sen- 
tence assumes that the theory of atavism is a fact. 



82 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



Krause of Berlin has described the brain of an 
"ape-like boy," seven and a half years of age, as 
being of ''normal size, but differed from the human 




Fig. 21 — Brain of an orang; side view. (After Gratiolet.) 




Fig. 22. — Brain of an orar.g, top view. (After Bastian, from a brain 
in the Royal College of Physicians, London.) 



BRAIN FORM IN RELATION TO MIND. 



83 



in every respect and approached in its whole struc- 
ture to the simian rather than the human type. " The 




Fig. 23. — Brain of a Narwhal; left side view. (After Turner.) 




Fig. 24. — Brain of an elephant. (After Bastian ) 

boy was cheerful and inclined to play and dance, 
but passionate when teased. He could only say 
"pa pa, ma ma." His parents had neglected him. 



84 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



Virchow and Hartman made a careful and close 
study of this boy, as they likewise did of Margaret 
Becker, another "ape-like" idiot, yet both these 
authorities concur in the decision that **in these ab- 




Fig. 25. — Base of the brain of a microsmatic seal. (After Turner ) 

normal creatures the positive psychologic faculties 
and qualities of the ape are wanting, while every 
characteristic of a human being is present" (11). 
Luciani reports a woman, 48 years of age, who 




5 — S 

Fig. 26. — The base of the human brain. (After Hirschfeld.) i, i, an- 
terior lobe of the cerebrum; 2, sphenoidal portion of the posterior lobe; 
3, 3, occipital portion of the same lobe; 4, anterior extremity of the 
median fissure; 5, posterior extremity of the same; 6, 6, fissure of Sylvius; 
7, anterior perforated space; 8, tuber cinereum and pituitary body; 9, 
corpora albicantia; 10 interpeduncular space (posterior perforated 
space); 11, crura cerebri; 12, pons Varolii; 13, medulla oblongata; 14 
anterior pyramids; 15, olivary body; 16, restiform body (only partially' 
visible); 17, 17, hemispheres of the cerebellum; 18, fissure separating 
these hemispheres; 19, 19, first and second convolutions of the inferior 
aspect of the frontal lobe with the intervening sulcus; 20, external con- 
volutions of the frontal lobe; 21, optic tract; 22, olfactory nerve; 22', sec- 
tion of the olfactory nerve, showing its triangular prismatic shape: the 
trunk has been raised to show the sulcus in which it is lodged; 23, gan- 
glion of the olfactory nerve; 24, optic chiasm; 25, motor oculi; 26, pa- 
theticus; 27, trigeminus; 28, abducens; 29, facial; 30, auditory nerve 
and nerve of Wrisberg; 31, glosso-pharyngeal; 32, pneumogastric; 37, 
spinal accessory; 34, hypoglossal. 



86 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MlND. 




Fig. 27. — Diagram showing the location of the convolutions as 
named, i, 2 and 3 indicate the superior, middle and inferior frontals. 
A — ascending frontal or pre-central; F — ascending parietal or post- 
central; S. P. — superior parietal; a— supra-marginal; &— angular; c — 
posterior parietal; i o, 2 o, 3 o, superior, middle, and inferior occipital; 
i-T, 2-T, 3-T, superior, middle, and inferior temporal convolutions. 




Fig 28 — Human brain; inner side of one half, showing the fissures 
if the cerebrum, etc. (After Diebierre). 



BRAIN FORM IN RELATION TO MIND. 87 

had a brain weighing only 900 gm., and with 
"marked abnormality of the convolutions." "The 
inferior pre-central fissure ran into the ascending 
ramus of the sylvian fissure; the second temporal 
fissure ran into the occipital fissure, " which is said 
to be a rare abnormality. Yet "her intelligence 
was average, " and she had lived a regular life, with- 
out attracting any peculiar attention until shortly 
before she died of pneumonia (12). R. Wagner 
refers to two cases of good intelligence with few 
convolutions (13). 

Occasionally infants are born without convolu- 
tions in the brain. Taylor describes one, eight 
months old, with a brain entirely devoid of convo- 
lutions, while the surface of the brain had the ap- 
pearance of being covered with plaster. Otherwise 
"it had no marked gross defects. It was defective 
mentally, and had frequent convulsive seizures of 
a peculiar character" (14). 

From the foregoing facts it is quite evident that 
while brain convolutions have in all probability a 
psychic value of some kind in the w^ay of "charac- 
ter" qualities other than moral, they bear no direct 
relation to mental status in either the biologic scale 
or class peculiarities. On the one hand we see the 



88 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

resourceful beavers skilfully co-operating^ in the 
adaptation of complicated means for social pur- 
poses, and even under exceptional conditions, while 
on the other hand, the sheep, with a brain rich in 
convolutions, is one of the most helpless and stupid 
of creatures under any unusual circumstances. 

HEAD FORMS. 

In regard to the shape of the head, it seems that 
most of our race types are dolichocephalic (long- 
headed), while all forms are, as a rule, found scat- 
tered among all races. Among the less civilized 
races it is frequently the case that a particular form 
is universal, or almost so, in a particular tribe, even 
in a race with all forms. According to Dr. John 
Rae (15), Eskimos in the neighborhood of Behring 
Straits are brachycephalic (short-headed); those in- 
habiting Greenland are extremely dolichocephalic, 
while the natives of the intermediate coast from 
Coppermine River eastwards have mesocephalic 
heads (intermediate shape). The Andamanese, a 
race of small people in the Indian Ocean, are said 
to be remarkable for the uniformity in the shape 
and smallness of their skulls (16). 



BRAIN FORM IN RELATION TO MIND. 



89 




Fig. 29. — Chinook " flat-head " skull, artificially deformed in infancy. 
'From Cassel's Natural History, Vol. VI ) 




Fig. 30 — "Flat-head" skull from Mallecollo, artificially deformed in 
infancy. (In the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, England.) 



90 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 




Fig. 31. — An Andamanese skull. All their skulls are remarkably 
similar, and about the smallest of any race. (After Flower.) (17.) 




iim 



Fig. 32— Acdamanese skull. 



CHAPTER VL 

BRAIN SIZE IN RELATION TO MIND. 

We have seen that brain weight is practically a 
measure of brain size (page 30). Brains weighing 
less than 1000 gm. are designated microcephalic, 
the average male brain weighing about 1400 gm. 
Very few brains are microcephalic, and according 
to Dr. Ireland even among idiots only one per cent, 
are microcephalic, and the brains of these are 
human in structure. Their basal ganglia and cere- 
bellum are not proportionately diminished, and all 
other parts of the body are normally developed. 
Dr. Ireland reports a girl, 12 years of age, whose 
brain only weighed 224 gm. She never spoke, was 
always fed, and her highest accomplishment was 
to shake hands (i). Prof. Cardova and Dr. Adriani 
of Perujia report the case of Antonio, an Italian 
idiot, whose brain only weighed 284 gm. (cerebrum 
238 gm.) She could dance, play well on the cym- 

(91) 



92 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

bals, was fond of being noticed, especially by the 
opposite sex, had a good memory for names of 
places and persons, but none for time. She learned 
to do easy work in the house and go out to buy 
provisions (2). 

But, as a rule, although some microcephales are 
active and energetic, they have little power of con- 
tinuous attention, while their sense impressions are 
lively. They are restless, imitative, and inclined 
to fly into passions. Few can speak. Under a 
special system of education they improve. 

Dr. Langdon Down observes four types among 
feeble-minded children, according to their general 
characteristics, both physical and mental, viz., (a) 
the Mongolian; (d) the Malay; (c) the North Ameri- 
can, and [d) the Negroid. He fourud 10 per cent, 
were of the Mongolian type, and all brachycephalic 
with ''the posterior part of the head ill-developed." 
Their hair is usually brown, straight and sparse; 
face flat and broad, and destitute of prominence; 
cheeks roundish and widened laterally; eyes 
obliquely placed, and the internal canthi more than 
normally separated; lips large and thick; nose 
small; tongue large, thick and rugous; skin tawny. 
They had always great powers of imitation, and 



BRAIN SIZE IN RELATION TO MIND. 93 

became extremely good mimics and had a strong 
sense of the ridiculous. They were always amiable 
both to their companions and animals, but neither 
passionate nor strongly affectionate. They could 
usually be taught to speak, though indistinctly and 
harshly. 

The Malay type has soft, black, curly hair, promi- 
nent upper jaws, and capacious mouths, as in the 
South Sea Islanders. 

The North American Indian type has shortened 
forehead, prominent cheeks, deep-set eyes and 
slightly apish nose. 

The Negroid type has characteristic malar bones, 
prominent eyes, puffy lips, and retreating chin; 
woolly hair, but not black, and without pigment in 
the skin. The same authority observes that the 
faculty of number is usually but slightly developed 
in feeble-minded children, while memory is fairly 
well developed, especially memory for tune, as they 
readily acquire simple airs, and seldom forget them. 
Some few are possessed of remarable talent in nar- 
row channels. Down tells of a boy who was a 
marvelous crayon-drawer, but a comparative blank 
in all his higher faculties. Another boy could build 
exquisite model ships from drawings, and carve 



94 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

with a great deal of skill, but he could not under- 
stand a sentence, and had to have his food dissect- 
ed for him. Another boy, 12 years of age, could 
multiply three figures by three figures with perfect 
accuracy, and so quickly that the listener could 
hardly write the six figures on paper before the 
result was given. Yet this boy, although he had 
talked with Dr. Down daily for two and a half 
years, could not remember the doctor's name. 
Another boy had a perfect appreciation of past or 
passing time, being able to tell the time to a minute 
at any part of the day and in any situation. He 
was tested on numberless occasions, but gradually 
his responses became less ready, his health became 
enfeebled and the facuity lost. He was 17 years of 
age at death, and the autopsy revealed his brain to 
be an ordinary one except that he had two well 
marked and distinct soft commissures. Dr. Down 
mentions a number of other similar cases, and re- 
marks that none of them can explain how they do 
their feat (3). Dr. E. S. Boland reports a blind 
negro youth at the Perkins Institute, Boston, who 
was as wonderful at rapid numerical computations as 
Blind Tom was at reproducing musical compositions 
which he had only once heard. Also another boy 



BRAIN SIZE IN RELATION TO MIND. 95 

who could answer questions as to calendar dates in 
his past life, and for a year or two in the future (25). 
Dr. Down observes that in none of these idiot prodi- 
gies, which have all been males, have any like 
faculties been found in their family relatives (3). 

Sir F. K. Bateman defines an idiot as ''a being 
who possesses the tripartite nature of man, body, 
soul and spirit, but who is the subject of an infirmity 
consisting anatomically of a defective organization 
and want of development of the brain, resulting in 
an inability, more or less complete, for the exercise 
of the intellectual, moral and sensitive faculties" (4). 

In a considerable proportion of idiots and imbe- 
ciles, including the paralytic forms, the mental de- 
fects are due to positive disease of the brain tissue 
rather than an arrest of development, while in many 
cases, including the microcephales, the mental de- 
fects are due to arrest or abortive development of 
the tissues of the cells and fibers. The late Ham- 
marberg of Sweden most thoroughly studied the 
brains of some idiots, of which the following case 
is illustrative of his findings in an extreme degree 
of idiocy: '*An idiot, 14 years of age, of normal 
stature, died of pneumonia. She never learned to 
sit or walk, nor showed any attention to things go- 



96 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

ing on about her. She had no ability to help her- 
self in any way except to cry when hungry. All 
traces of speech and the recognition of things or 
persons were totally wanting. Her brain weighed 
442 gm. ; the hemispheres were unsymmetrical ; the 
insula was lacking or represented on the surface by 
two accessory frontal convolutions; the corpus cal- 
losum was membranous and the fornix defective; a 
number of the important fissures were not repre- 
sented and considerable areas were unconvoluted; 
the cerebellum showed no abnormality, but the 
pons was unsymmetrical. The cells in the brain 
numbered two, three, or four, never more than ten 
per o. I cubic mm., and these were simply spindles 
or granules. The cortex in several regions had 
only a single layer of embryonic cells with no trace 
of the ordinary differentiation. In other parts there 
were two layers— a superficial layer of cells partially 
grown into the pyramidal shape, and a deeper layer 
of simple spindle-shaped cells" (5). Thus, for ex- 
tensive areas, the cortex had not developed beyond 
the embryonic sixth month, while other areas ap- 
parently developed for a month or two longer. In 
no place had the cells attained anything like the 
adult normal in size and form. The power to form 



BRAIN SIZE IN RELATION TO MIND. 97 

cells was also markedly deficient, there being only 
two to four cells per cubic mm. , whereas the nor- 
mal number is from ten to twenty, and frequently 
much more (5), In this case we see that the de- 
fective structure clearly accounts for the defective 
mental manifestation. 

The peculiar talents sometimes observed in those 
otherwise backward or idiotic would seem to have 
their only explanation in the law that an endowment 
carries with it a corresponding demand for exercise, 
so that a disproportion in the capacity for exercise 
existing among organs of the brain may beget an 
exclusiveness at the expense of the defective or- 
gans. Even assuming that the defective develop- 
ment of some parts of the brain does not imply a 
positive advantage to other parts, yet the relatively 
more advanced organs will be functionally called 
upon in excess of their normal share by way of 
compensating for those organs defective, and thus 
as a correlative to the favored organs attention will 
become more and more exclusive or specialized, 
and so perceptiveness along special lines becomes 
exceptionally keen but intuitive in form. In sup- 
port of this view we have the occasional observation 
that boys who had wonderful special talents have 



98 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 



not only lost them by the process of a liberal edu- 
cation, but have invariably been reduced to mental 
mediocrity, or even lower still. 

BRAIN WEIGHTS OF EMINENT MEN. 





WEIGHING LESS THAN I3OO GRAMS. 




Age. 


Name. 


Occupation. 


Weight. 


71 


Dollinger. 


Anatomist. 


1207 


77 


Hauseman. 


Mineralogist. 


1226 


40 


Harless. 


Physiologist. 


1238 


57 


Lasauix. 


Physician. 


1250 


79 


Tiedeman. 


Anatomist. 


1254 


80 


Grant. 


Anatomist. 


1290 


43 


Gambetta. 


Statesman. 


1294 




WEIGHING LESS THAN I4OO GRAMS. 




50 


Coudereau. 


Physician. 


1312 


63 


J. Hughes Bennet 


. Physician. 


1332 


71 


Tallymerayer. 


Historian. 


1344 


70 


Liebig. 


Chemist. 


1352 


52 


Herman. 


Philologist. 


1358 


71 


Whewell. 


Philosopher. 


1390 


62 


Bertillion. 


Anthropologist. 


1398 




WEIGHING MORE THAN I4OO GRAMS. 




45 


Assazat. 


Political writer. 


1403 


78 


Babbage. 


Mathematician. 


1403 


75 


Grote. 


Historian. 


1410 


62(?) 


Meyer. 


Poet. 


1415 


59 


Dupuytren. 


Surgeon. 


1436 


73 


Helmholtz. 


Physicist. 


1440 


63 


Lamarque. 


General. 


1449 


79 


Ch. H. Bischoff. 


Physician. 


1452 



BRAIN SIZE IN RELATION TO MIND. 



99 



WEIGHING MORE THAN I4OO GRAMS CONTINUED. 



Age. 


JVa7?te. 


Occupation. 


Weight. 


39 


Skobiloff. 


General. 


1457 


49 


J. Huber. 


Philosopher. 


1468 


56 


Broca. 


Anthropologist. 


1485 


78 


Gauss. 


Mathematician. 


1492 


65 


De Morgan. 


Mathematician. 


1498 


52 


Fuchs. 


Pathologist. 


1499 




WEIGHING MORE 


THAN 1500 GRAMS. 




67 


Chalmers. 


Theologian. 


1502 


56 


Schleich. 


Writer. 


1503 


66 


Agassiz. 


Naturalist. 


1512 


45 


C. Wright. 


Mathematician. 


1516 


70 


Daniel Webster. Statesman. 


1516 


82 


Campbell. 


Lord Chancellor 


. 1516 


54 


De Morney. 


Statesman. 


1520 


55 


Derichlet. 


Mathematician. 


1520 


60 


J. Y. Simpson. 


Physician. 


1533 


57 


Spurzheim. 


Phrenologist. 


1559 


73 


Herman. 


Economist. 


1590 




WEIGHING MORE 


THAN 1600 GRAMS. 




54 


Goodsir. 


Anatomist. 


1629 


53 


Thackeray. 


Novelist. 


1644 




WEIGHING MORE 


THAN 1700 GRAMS. 




64 


Abercrombie. 


Physician. 


1785 


46 


Schiller. 


Poet. 


1785 


63 


Cuvier. 


Naturalist. 


1830 




WEIGHING MORE 


THAN 1900 GRAMS. 




54(7) 


Knight. 


Mechanician. 


1984 


66 (8) 


Abercrombie. 


General. 


1922 


75(8) 


Benj. F, Butler, 


. . General, 


1922 



lOO BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

WEIGHING MORE THAN 2000 GRAMS. 

^ge. Name. Occupation. Weight. 

65 (9) Turgenieff. Russian novelist. 2012 

These are not selected cases, as they are all the 

recorded brain weights of eminent men which I 

have so far found, most of which I have taken from 

Bastian's and Donaldson's tables. If we divide 

the sum total of the brain weights in the preceding 

table by the number of persons represented, we 

find it gives a per capita average for eminent men 

of more than 1479 gm., which, when compared 

with the following table, is seen to be considerably 

higher than the average of the general population 

of any country. 

TABLE OF AVERAGE BRAIN WEIGHTS. 

(Havelocque and Harve.) (10) 
Nationality. 

Scotch. 

Bavarian. 

French. 
. Italian. 

Chinese. 

Negroes. 

Here we see that Scotland, which is noted for its 
high intellectual average, shows the highest aver- 
age in brain weights. Thus it is evident that when 
other things are equal brain mass is in proportion 



Av. Weight. 


No. 


of Cases. 


1417 




157 


1375 




460 


1359 




167 


135B 




244 


1343 




13 


1331 




141 



BRAIN bIZE IN RELATION TO MIND. lOI 

to intellectual status. But when we come to exam- 
ine the brain weights of some imbeciles and ob- 
scure persons, it also becomes evident that the 
other things than mass are by far the more impor- 
tant. The following list comprises some of the 
cases which I have met with in the course of my 
reading. 

LARGE BRAINS — COMMON PERSONS. 



Observer. 


Subject. 


Weight. 


Rustan (ii). 


Mulatto. 


1861 


Wagner (12). 


Woman. 


1872 


Oberstiner (13). 


Workman. 


2028 


Wilson (14). 


Carpenter. 


2048 


Morris (15). 


Bricklayer. 


2077 


Middlemas (16). 


Dement. 


2096 


Grant (17). 


Workman. 


2164 


Rustan (18). 


Laborer. 


2222 


Hevinge (19). 


Imbecile. 


2256 


Army Med. Museum, 






Washington, D. C. 


Squaw. 


2278 


Rudolphi (2q). 


Laborer. 


2356 



Little or nothing has been reported about the 
mental and moral characters of most of these cases. 
Dr. G. K.Wilson of the Morningside Asylum, Edin- 
burgh, has made a study of the fourth case in the 
preceding list, and which demonstrates that a brain 
of very large size is not incompatible with an ordi- 
nary character and even long life. The subject died 



I02 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

at 75 years of a^e, was 5 feet 10 inches tall, and 
weighed 172 pounds. Dr. Wilson describes him as 
follows: "He was a sawyer all his life until a few 
years ago. His education was poor, but his intelli- 
gence seems to have been above the level required 
for his work. He was a good judge of wood and 
a fair amateur cabinetmaker. He lacked ambition, 
however, and was neither original nor very ener- 
getic. He had almost no interest beyond his work 
and family. He took no part in social questions, 
politics, or religion. He read very little, and did 
not care for amusements. He had a hasty temper 
and was given to bouts of drinking at one time; 
otherwise he was a good husband and father, and 
was very kind-hearted. The mental disturbance 
for which he was sent to the asylum was of the na- 
ture of a premature senile breakdown with marked 
confusion, aphasia, and impulsive violence" (14). 

While the cause of the size of his brain may not 
have been, strictly speaking, pathological, the cause 
of functional inefficiency may have been psychic or 
moral by virtue of fettering factors in his early en- 
vironment. He lacked incentive, perhaps, also to 
some extent, and while yet in the molding and 
seasoning stage he may have lacked the opportuni- 



BRAIN SIZE IN RELATION TO MIND. IO3 

ties best fitting to his brain capabilities, for it seems 
he was mentally above his social level. It some- 
times appears that children are made idiotic simply 
through their environment. Dr. James Morris re- 
ported a bricklayer, robust and 5 feet 9 inches tall, 
who could neither read nor write, but was fond of 
politics and not very sober. He had a good 
memory and a well-proportioned brain weighing 
2077 gm. (21) 

In comparing Europeans with the other races of 
the world, as in the following table, it again appears 
that the mean average brain weight is highest in 
the most intellectual or civilized, while in the table 
following that one, and containing the scattered 
groups, it will be noticed that the average weight 
of the brain of the ancient Briton, as indicated by 
the capacities of 56 skulls, is no less than 1460 gm., 
which is higher than the highest of any living race 
as yet reported. 

AVERAGE BRAIN WEIGHTS OF DIFFERENT RACES. 

From the tables of Dr. J. B. Davis, F.R. S. (24) 

MALES. 

No. of Mean Average of Average of 

Cases. Average. Heaviest. Lightest. 
European. 299 1340 gm. 1364 12 12 

Oceanic. 210 1293 '* 1369 1192 



io4 



BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 





MALES CONTINUED. 






No. of 


Mean 


Average of Average of 




Cases. 


Average. 


Heaviest. Lightest. 


American. 


52 


1282 gm 


. 1338 


1209 


Asiatic. 


124 


1278 '' 


1397 


I155 


African. 


53 


1268 ** 


1306 


1165 


Australian. 


24 


1 190 ** 

FEMALES 


1413 


1027 


European. 


94 


II 80 gm 


1278 


1099 


Oceanic. 


95 


I185 - 


1239 


1139 


American. 


31 


II64 '' 


1263 


1087 


Asiatic. 


86 


II7I ** 


1276 


1042 


African. 


60 


I187 ** 


1220 


1 100 


Australian. 


II 


1089 '* 


1 194 


966 




SOME 


SMALLER 


GROUPS. 






(Same autho 


rity.) 




. 


AVERAGE OF MALES. 






Cases. 


Average. 


Average of Heaviest. 


Malays. 


6 


1393 gr 


n. 1500 gm. 


Javans. 


30 


1312 ' 


1517 


( ( 


Madurans. 


10 


1415 ' 


1569 




Kanakas. 


67 


1330 ' 


1545 




Australians. 


17 


II74 ' 


1482 




Arancarians. 


5 


1371 ' 


1638 




Esquimaux. 


5 


1369 ' 


* 1604 




(Greenlanc 


1) 








Kafirs. 


7 


1363 ' 


1482 




Negroes. 


12 


1230 ' 


1500 




Dahomans. 


9 


1296 ' 


' 1397 




Hindoos. 


35 


1228 ' 


1431 




Mussulman. 


14 


I24I ' 


' 1466 




Chinese. 


25 


1330 ' 


1585 




Ancient Britons. 56 


1460 ' 


1585 





BRAIN SIZE IN RELATION TO MIND. IO5 

'*In 1886," says Dr. Joseph Simms, "we meas- 
ured many of the skulls unearthed at Pompeii, the 
remains of Romans who lived nearly two thousand 
years ago, and we found them on an average larger 
in every way, but especially in the forehead, than 
the skulls of Romans of this century." He found 
the same to be case with the skulls of the ancient 
lake-dwellers in Switzerland, compared with the 
skulls of modern Swiss. In the catacombs of Paris 
he found the skulls to average nearly an inch more 
in circumference than the skulls of modern Parisians 
(22). Such data are not very healthy for the delu- 
sional idea of evolution, while they strongly point 
to a modern degeneracy. 

Dr. Gaston Le Bon has pointed out that the dif- 
ferences in the average capacities of the largest and 
smallest skulls of a race varies directly with the 
relative intellectual rank of the race. He finds these 
differences to be in modern Germans 40 cubic 
inches; in Australians 20 cubic inches, and among 
gorillas 12 cubic inches (23). Thus the highest and 
lowest possibilities are proportional to the intel- 
lectual level of a race or species; or, in other words, 
the lowest possibility is in proportion to the highest 
possibility. Monstrosities, idiots, lunatics, epilep- 



I06 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

tics, etc., are said to be comparatively rare beyond 
the borders of civilization. 

When we compare the brain weights of the lower 
animals with that of man we find that while some 
animals, such as the canary, greenfinch, and some 
of the smaller apes (sajoii and saimiri), possess a 
relatively heavier brain than man, other animals (as 
the whale and elephant) possess brains which are 
absolutely heavier. In fact, it can only be said that 
man surpasses all other animals in the proportional 
development of his cerebral hemispheres, and in 
their complexity. The psychic correlatives and 
causes operating in brain weight and form can only 
be arrived at by a thorough comparison of those 
features with the habits and characteristics of men 
and the lower animals, which as yet have been very 
imperfectly studied. 

If we glance at the brain weights of the lower 
animals, we will observe that they bear no fixed 
relationship to any one psychic quality or combina- 
tion of such qualities, in so far as these animals are 
known. From the works of Bischoff and Chauvau 
on comparative anatomy I take the following figures 
(in grams) of the brain weights in average-sized 
animals: Elephant, 4960-3968; whale, 2248-1984; 



BRAIN SIZE IN RELATION TO MIND. IO7 

horse, 680-600; ox, 500-400; gorilla, 500-400; 
orang and chimpanzee, 400-350; ass, 360; tiger, 
291; lion, 250-200; dog, 180; pig, 160; sheep and 
goat, 130; cat, 30. 

Nor does brain weight bear any regular relation- 
ship to body weight, as will be seen from the fol- 
lowing figures of comparative weights of brain to 
body, taken from the same authorities: Sajou (mon- 
key), 1-13; canary and greenfinch, 1-14; saimiri 
(monkeys) 1-24; rat, 1-31; mole, 1-36; man, 1-35-37; 
lemur, 1-42; lizards, i- 160; eagle, 1-160; carp, 1-248; 
dog, 1-250; bear, 1-265; h^^» i"347; elephant, 1-500; 
horse, 1-700-400; ox, 1-1000-800; ostrich, 1-1200; 
shark, 1-2496; land turtle, 1-2240; whale, 1-3300; 
sea turtle, 1-5680. 



CHAPTER VII. 

NORMAL MIND. 

By the term normal mind I mean the prompt and 
coordinate action of all the mental faculties coexist- 
ing with pacific disposition or temper. It has no 
reference to knowledge in the numerical sense, nor 
capacity in the geometrical sense, but simply that 
state of mind which enables the individual to do his 
best in any given relation. 

GENERAL ASPECT. 

Of ten business or professional men selected at 
random, at least eight would commonly be regarded 
as normal in the sense of being representative of 
the community standard of free agency. But these 
eight will differ one from another to such an extent 
that each may meet his opposite in views and dis- 
position in one way or another, and yet the facul- 
ties of feeling, reason and will may be regarded 
in all as in good working order. Between the com- 

( 109) 



I lO BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

mon types of different races and nations the same 
condition exists, a condition which, barring the 
difference of language, precludes harmonious ac- 
tion on any question of common interest, without 
a wasteful expenditure of both time and energy. 
This is evidence that the common normal is not 
the complete, and that feeling, reason and will are 
somehow defective. But as there is naturally no 
essential difference between man and man viewed 
from both psychologic and physiologic standpoints, 
this difference must be due to difference in ideas 
and habits, and as every act not naturally instinct- 
ive is originally the product of an idea, the question 
of cause is resolved into: What ideas conduce to 
the really normal mind or approximately perfect? 
When we consider the nature of ideas, it is evi- 
dent they are not only true or false, but vary in 
importance or value as measured by their utility as 
means to an end — the scope of their application to 
final purpose, whatever that may be. Ideas of pur- 
pose being both the product of elaboration and 
motive to acts are either conservative of energy, or 
have an opposite effect, directly or indirectly. But 
as tone of brain is the equivalent of tone of mind, 
owing to mutual dependence, it is evident that a 



NORMAL MIND. Ill 

false purpose will induce a dissipation of energy 
which will reduce the intellectual range by its en- 
feebling effect. Thus the question arises: What 
ideas of final purpose are in harmony with nature 
that we may live to the best advantage— be serene 
in mind — coordinate with natural or necessary en- 
vironment. To this end we might take the charac- 
ters of great men who have been universally loved 
and respected, and find their actuating principles, 
which have done far more for our well-being than 
have pills and powders. We would find, on careful 
analysis, that the dispositions of egotism, malice 
and fear were seldom if ever manifested, as they 
rarely existed. All mental reactions depend upon 
the principles, the experience and the habits of 
thought of the individual and purpose in life, which 
in some extend no farther than self-preservation. 

EVOLUTION OF CHARACTER. 

When we consider mind as an entity, the ques- 
tion of its environment begins at the germinal stage 
of life — the relationship of the chromatic elements 
to the differentiating entity of the protoplasmic 
nidus or environment, and which entity is finally 
manifested as mind. Excluding maternal accidents, 



112 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

the formative forces prevail under prenatal laws 
with the minima of impediments. At birth, the 
new environment with its stimuli to the senses, 
^ives mental motions to a potential basis which is 
gradually cradled, so to speak, into manifest con- 
sciousness. The cosmic conditions, as ever present 
factors in the molding of the infant mind, pave the 
way for the apprehension of those great and ever- 
lasting impressions or intuitions which later dawn 
upon the reason and stir the powers to greater 
action. Thus that eternal monitor, the conscience, 
is evolved alike in all human beings. Though as 
unalterable as the fixed laws of nature, of which it 
is the exclusive product, conscience may be per- 
verted or clouded by criminal career or criminal 
influence — crimes against truth, justice and econo- 
my. For the same reason that conscience is a fixed 
quality — the product of the fixed laws or operations 
of nature, and therefore of necessary experience — 
the inherent disposition against all aberrant condi- 
tions, physical and mental, is to assume the normal, 
a result that will always ensue if the evils of inher- 
ited bent and environment are not too strong for 
the healthy remnant. Otherwise "the weakest 
must go to the wall" — the wall of dissolution. 



NORMAL MIND. II3 

In the, infant, mind is in its most plastic stage, the 
earHest impressions and habits being the most last- 
ing and forming the basis for future disposition. 
As the evil habits and conditions which contributed 
to its protoplasmic impress, or hereditary defect, 
may still rule the nursery, it is evident that mental 
restriction must follow with conscience crowded 
out of notice, or pointing in vain. Heredity, as the 
cumulative effect of all experiences cosmic, racial 
and ancestral, must necessarily give the child a 
bearing toward its external environment (trans- 
somatic) which will vary with the differences of 
transmitted impress, and consequently inclination 
and intuition will have different bents. Indeed, so 
powerful is transmitted bent that not uncommonly 
a child of criminal ancestry, though for a time sys- 
tematically educated under good influences, will 
revert to the criminal class, just as sometimes the 
young Indian from college does to his racial habits. 
Of course, the civilizing influences have only been 
conforming in effect, not reforming. Such disposi- 
tion is due to the irksomeness of inaptness, a sort 
of intuitive leaning having a potential or instinctive 
basis. Thus, by early training, the normal intui- 
tions of the mind may be displaced by purely selfish 



114 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

ideas and criminal character be formed, such as the 
character of the burglar or the political or commer- 
cial knave. It is such cases that must be *'born 
anew" — radically changed in views — before they 
can be brought in harmony with natural economy — 
with the great final purpose in nature, which can 
only be correctly apprehended, even in part, by the 
normal mind — the fully free. 

The stage of infancy is ruled by instinct and in- 
tuition almost entirely in the acquisitive form. At 
first ideas associated by suggestion gradually dis- 
pose the mind to analysis, then synthesis, with 
the faculties of recollection, judgment and reason 
slowly evolved in due order. The experiences of 
all children, naturally treated, are essentially the 
same, so that when they arrive at the age of reason, 
instinct and intuition lose their official importance 
and questions of conservative interest arise for 
rational consideration. Later on the question of 
final purpose dawns upon the youthful mind, and 
though it cannot be logically solved by it, experi- 
ences and intuitions have given sufficient assurance 
that certain things are right until intelligence makes 
duty and purpose more definite and distinct. Here, 
I niay observe that the child of the country — of 



NORMAL MIND. I T 5 

pastoral surroundings — being freer from artificial 
distraction than the child of a metropolis, is more 
profoundly imbued with the results of cosmic im- 
pressions, and thus later in life is more likely to 
acquire prophetic insight. Thus the untutored 
mind of the peasant, as illustrated in the ''Cottar's 
Saturday Night," may evince great wisdom and 
peace because of living in line with a final purpose 
in harmony with intuition and common sense, 

STATES OF MIND. 

Self-control, in harmony with first principles or 
the self-evident truths in nature, is the essential 
characteristic of the normal mind. It is the condi- 
tion of the greatest freedom of the will and power 
of attention with which it is commensurate. The 
power of discernment and the power of choice are 
at their highest degrees, and are at all times ruled 
by truth, justice and economy. Full self-possession 
contains no egotism, malice, or fear, for it is the 
necessary product of logical living. The great and 
self-evident fact that the highest good to self is de- 
pendent on the attainment of the same by others is 
an ever present thought as a dictate of conscience. 
One of the first great impressions which naturally 



Il6 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

comes to the human mind after the sense of free- 
dom, is the sense of absolute dependence — the lav^r 
of gravitation, so to speak, in the psychologic 
world. Following this, the fact of inherited envi- 
ronment with its many and varied misfortunes, 
whether of wealth or poverty, gives basis to charity, 
which, when logically exercised, works for harmony 
and efficiency along all progressive lines. Thus 
we gather guiding principles which with growing 
knowledge lead to a fuller recognition of our rela- 
tionship to time, eternity, and an Infinite Person- 
ality, and while we perceive our high dignity in 
natural economy, we carry the conviction of abso- 
lute dependence. Witness the modesty, the mag- 
nanimity and the self-sacrifice of true greatness. 

But these great and guiding principles which 
work for harmony and progress may be stifled in 
their birth by the inculcation of morbid or false 
teaching and example, and thus the selfish charac- 
ter develop with egotism, malice and fear as neces- 
sary conditions. 

A typical case of undiluted selfish character came 
under my notice in the New York City Workhouse. 
He was a man about 30 years of age, and by pro- 
fession a bank burglar. He had served several 



NORMAL MIND. II7 

terms in the penitentiary, but was committed to the 
workhouse for one year on a minor offense. As 
prisoners were allowed more liberty during their 
last month's service, I engaged him to shave me 
(I was then acting-surgeon to the prison) in my 
room, that I might have the opportunity of finding 
the roots of his character. He was an unusually 
"nice looking, " shapely and clever fellow, facts 
that seemed incompatible with his history of early 
and continued crime. After discussing all sorts of 
questions with him at different times, the fact was 
revealed that he firmly held the belief there was no 
future state, and that it was reasonable to get every- 
thing now, no matter about the rights of others who 
possessed whatever he wanted. Thus his niceness 
was simply habit or policy. 

Egotism, as the "1 am more than I am," is quite 
a different thing from the positiveness of decision, 
the assertion of a truth, or heroic action. It is an 
exhibition of personal importance with disrespect 
for others without just cause, and arises from a 
selfish disposition to be esteemed more than our 
merit, with a delusional basis. It is very common 
and conspicuous among the insane and is essen- 
tially an abnormal product. 



1 1 8 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

Malice, as the disposition to injure others purely 
for the sake of inflicting pain or antagonism, or in 
some cowardly indirect method of "getting even," 
is quite a different thing from correction for a 
wrong, which, though it may be ineffectual, is cura- 
tive in its tendency. It springs directly from self- 
ishness as an attitude for its own protection along 
chosen lines, and with no disposition to apologetic 
considerations. It has the same delusional basis 
as egotism, viz., lack of the sense of dependence. 

Fear is the product of uncertainty — a necessary 
condition of selfishness, and comes from the ob- 
scurity which necessarily more or less exists in all 
abnormal states of mind and acts therefrom, whether 
of guilt or disease. To live in the light of funda- 
mental principles (common sense) is to have such 
a telescopic view of life that consistent action can 
bring no fears. Not to so live is to live in shade 
or obscurity, so that acts must carry with them 
more or less uncertainty of result, and fears arise. 
The innocent, in view of the final result in the light 
of final purpose, can have no fears. The fear of 
childhood is the fear of imperfect understanding 
and is as transient as the cause. Fear from guilty 
acts is the fear of conscious desert of punishment 



NORMAL MIND. I 19 

and has reference to unknown remote results with 
indefinite persistence. 

Grief, as the effect of unavoidable or uninten- 
tional evils or social loss which cannot be replaced, 
has a disturbing action on the mind because of the 
element of uncertainty of result or personal respon- 
sibility, and is therefore a form or degree of 
anxiety. It is frequently associated with personal 
misgivings of our own real or fancied delinquency 
in relation to the object, and is thereby mingled 
with fear. 

Anger, like fear, works to the disadvantage of 
the subject, and consequently is not a normal state 
of mind. It is precluded by a clear and full view 
of the whole situation and its relations, with com- 
plete self-possession — conditions depending on a 
full acting brain. Anger is a product of all abnor- 
mal dispositions of mind and brain, though not 
always manifested, and while in its nature it is a 
symptom of imperfection, it is the least aberrant of 
all abnormal dispositions of the mind. It is simply 
a disturbance of temper or co-ordinate mental ac- 
tion. Complete immunity from it would imply ab- 
solute perfection — a somatic impossibility. It must 
be distinguished from active self-protection. 



I20 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

Love is the outflow of the sense or realization of 
mutual dependence, mutual need of reciprocity. It 
is therefore the normal product of instinct, intuition 
and reason, and thus it may have many forms, ac- 
cording to whether instinct, intuition or reason pre- 
dominate in serving the cause. Love begotten of 
intuition is the most intense, that of reason is the 
most lasting. It is the assurance of harmony and 
coordination with nature and is the root of all con- 
servation of .energy in the line of true advance. It 
is the sacrifice of present personal desires which are 
in conflict with natural economy. 

Sociability, — Man normally has a social disposi- 
tion which in childhood is general or promiscuous, 
just as talents carry with them a desire for their 
use. As years increase this disposition becomes 
more and more select for specific purpose of mutual 
advantage and for that purpose systematic exclu- 
siveness is required for the attainment of a particu- 
lar end, otherwise there would be dissipation of 
energy. Thus, while sociability is normally a pro- 
duct of love, it can be claimed only by the fitness 
of means to an end and therefore an exclusiveness 
may result, manifested as an eccentricity. Differ- 
ence in habits from the conventional (eccentricity) 



NORMAL MIND. 12 1 



due to exclusiveness for a rational purpose indicates 
intensity of character above the common, but other- 
wise eccentricity is a symptom of the delusional 
state (disease). 



MORAL DISPOSITIONS. 



ABNORMAL. 

MANIFESTATIONS. 



1 Pride. ) ^Simplicity. ) 

;ide. \ Vanity. f egotism. „ . , ^. modesty. ] Kindness. [ Peace. 

/ Anger. ) Primary actuating- (Courtesy. ) 

etc. K Principles. 7) etc. 

(Hatred. ) ' ' ■ ^ (Charity. ) 

der. ] Theft. C mauce.<_ SELFNESS 1 LOVE -^ behevolenceJ Sacrifice.- [ Progtes 

(Deception, ) (AiiUsociiil) 1 (Social) (Forgiveness.) 

etc. V etc. 

(Suspicion. \ l/ ^ ■ Truth. ) 

iity. j Bravado. f feao. SEBEMire X Joy. \ Power. 

(Cowardice. ) (Courage ) 

etc etc 

Notes.— (1) Few, if anj-, individuaLs are exclusively the one or the other, but 
usually vacillate between the two principles owing to weakness. 
The one may wear the appearance of the other and thus have fail- 
ure or success accordingly, viewed from the standpoint of funda- 
mental principles. 
(2) By suicide I mean either a violent or slow process of self destruction. 
By murder I mean either a violent or slow process of destruction to 
others. By fatuity 1 mean that state of mind which has such a 
mixture of both these dispositions that more stupor than impulse 
results. 

THE FACULTIES. 

By reason, feeling and will we commonly include 
all of mental action. The one cannot exist without 
the other, but they embrace distinctive modes of 
mental process, as seen in the accompanying ana- 
lytic table (page 129). 

The acquisitive faculty is the power the mind has 
of receiving impressions through the organs of the 
body and translating them into ideas. So keen can 
this power become in special lines, vision for exam- 
ple, that disciplined observers can accurately note 
hundreds of objects in a room by a glance on pass- 



122 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

ing its door and afterward describe every detail 
which was within view. In my own experience in 
early student days, I acquired the faculty of read- 
ing a whole line at a glance, or about as quickly as 
I now ordinarily do a word. That the mind is also 
constantly receiving impressions which are not con- 
sciously perceived at the time is evidenced by som- 
nambulistic feats and the doings of persons pre- 
occupied. The case of an ordinary female servant 
who in the delirium of fever repeated whole pas- 
sages of Greek and Hebrew which had been recited 
within her hearing years before, and which she 
neither understood nor gave attention to at the time 
of hearing them, goes to show the imperishability 
of mental acquisitions and the vast amount acquired 
unconsciously. 

The conservative faculty, or the power of holding 
impressions or ideas subconsciously for future use, 
preserves all experiences and thoughts, classified 
according to one relationship or another, and there- 
fore made more or less available for use when 
needed, according habits of associating ideas. 

The representative faculty is commonly known as 
memory, but is properly the power of the mind to 
reproduce ideas from memory. It is either volun- 



NORMAL MIND. I 23 

tary or involuntary, but in man usually botbx, and 
in the purely voluntary form it appears to be exclu- 
sively a human faculty. Voluntary reproduction, 
strictly speaking, is a process of exclusion in favor 
of certain lines of association or groups of ideas. 
This faculty habitually exercised can perform won- 
ders compared to the degree in which it commonly 
exists. Indeed, some persons can instantly recall 
almost any forgotten experiences. When a lad of 
16 years at Edinburgh, wading through the pon- 
derous tomes of Turner and Liebig's chemistry, I 
systematically tested my recollection after four or 
five hours' consecutive study, covering forty to fifty 
pages of new matter, and found that at times I 
could not only recall many of the ideas, but also 
the page and setting containing them in pictorial 
representation. This faculty improved by practicing 
the careful retracing of thoughts by sequence. The 
faculties of perception and recollection show what 
a mass of mental material exists subconsciously, 
only to be brought in view when the mind is fully 
emancipated from somatic conditions (perversions). 
Later on, when a student in London, I practiced as 
an experiment for a number of weeks the habit of 
daily reviewing my experiences in minute detail, 



124 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

beginning with the last sensation or thought. Be- 
tween 5 and 6 p. m. I would comfortably recline 
upon a sofa and close my eyes. At first the task 
required considerable effort to connect all the per- 
ceptions of a day, but I soon acquired the power 
of reviewing the experiences (subconscious percep- 
tions) of many months within a space of time less 
than an hour. I found that by directing my atten- 
tion to a given point and then holding it passively, 
ideas would instantly cluster about the central one 
by the natural law of association — suggestion. I 
would have a pictorial representation in natural 
order and seemed to again experience something 
of the original feelings that accompanied them. The 
review seemed complete, although some fields of 
experience required more effort than others to com- 
plete them. But the most remarkable revelation 
was the rapidity with which I sometimes could cover 
a large territory — many thousands of perceptions — 
within a few moments. It was mostly by sugges- 
tion and only partly by recollection. The faculty of 
recollection, depending as it does upon a conven- 
tional system or predetermined line of association 
of ideas by the individual, is one of the latest de- 
veloped and highest faculties of the intellect, so that 



NORMAL MIND. T25 

when degenerative changes of the brain take place, 
it is one of the first to weaken. 

The elaborative faculty is the power of the mind 
to relate things according to purpose or plan. Its 
highest form is reason, which calls in service every 
mental process. Reason is chiefly dependent on 
the faculty of recollection — the faculty of recalling 
anything wished through a system preestablished 
by the individual. This enables reason to advance 
beyond intuition and also produce certainty for sur- 
mise. Reason pure and simple is the last and most 
complex faculty evolved, and as the creature of 
self-discipline it is the first faculty to weaken in 
most brain degenerations. This is why fixed delu- 
sions usually appear long before the simpler facul- 
ties show any marked enfeeblement. I doubt if 
reason, strictly speaking, is possessed by any other 
creature than man. 

The regulative faculty is the presidential power 
of the intellect, but with no more power of action 
than is delegated by its constituents, the subsidiary 
faculties. Its strength of action (the will) depends 
upon the relative ef^ciency of all the mental facul- 
ties governed by fundamental or first principles dis- 
cerned by intuition and reason from necessary or 



126 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

universal experiences and known as common sense 
(not common notions). They are the principles 
that work for harmony and progress. 

Instinct is the expression of elaborative efforts of 
organization and parts for conservative ends. There 
are three principal forms: i. Cosmical instinct, or 
the instinct oi first acts, such as the sucking of the 
babe, or the pecking of chicks — for the preserva- 
tion of the individual. 2. The instinct of sexual 
attraction — for \ki^ preservation of the species, 3. The 
instinct oi preponderating talent, or the desire to ex- 
ercise an inherited power — to the advantage of the 
species for final purpose. As a propensity, instinct 
is the first manifestation of subconscious elaborative 
action, which is a necessary condition of growth 
and experience. 

Intuition is also a subconscious action of the 
mind, but bearing a concept as a product, instead of 
a propensity. It is a faculty common to all the 
higher animals and is often mistaken for reason in 
them. It is the power of the natural or poetic 
mind as distinguished from the logical. If the state 
of the mind is normal and the related subconscious 
data are correct, intuition must be accurate when 
pronounced. Such a condition is only approxi- 



NORMAL MIND. 



127 



mately attainable. But our great motive ideas are 
mostly intuitional, more or less, as few minds can 
consciously calculate to a conclusion with all the 
data involved even in everyday problems. Women, 
who commonly live more naturally than men, pos- 
sess it in a higher degree, and in those who are 
well informed and conditioned, it is more reliable 
than the exercise of reason in the imperfect form 
so common. 

Attention, — The power of attention is the power 
of the will and is the first condition required for 
the appreciation of an object by the perceptive 
faculties. If it equals the measure of scrutiny and 
if the measure of scrutiny equals the nature and 
number of ideas engaged and the order in which 
we bring them to bear on the object, together with 
the manner in which the object is exhibited, then 
the impression or notion received of the object will 
accord with the measure of attention given it. In 
mental fault the attention is weakened and the sub- 
ject is more or less passive, as in infancy, so that 
perception is incomplete. Attention is given more 
to the/r^ side than the con side of the thing pre- 
sented or the quality suggested, and if the favoring 
circumstances remain undiminished, complete sub- 



128 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

jection (hypnotism) will result. Arrest of attention 
is palsy of the will, which is subjectivity of the mind. 
Emotion is a normal condition, but in its mani- 
festation is inversely proportional to intellectual 
range. It is the product of suggestion on subcon- 
scious factors in the mind in accord with the law of 
the association of ideas. In normal mind it can be 
controlled by the power of the will to exclude or 
substitute ideas as directed. Emotion is most pro- 
found in the intellectual but least manifest as there 
is less physiologic excitement, because of greater 
self-possession which is equivalent to a higher tone 
of the nervous system. It is most manifest in those 
who have a poetic habit of mind rather than a scien- 
tific — systematic or logical, and thus they are more 
or less subjective to external direction. The sub- 
jective state of mind is equivalent to passive atten- 
tion or the taking cognizance of nothing but evi- 
dence supporting the idea suggested, and thus hyp- 
notism or mesmerism may be induced by an ex- 
clusive direction of attention instituted by a second 
person. Voluntary exclusive direction of attention 
to a negative object will induce auto-hypnotism. 
Ordinary manifested emotion is largely an expres- 
sion of confusion and weakness. No one can be 



NORMAL MIND. I 29 

hypnotized without submitting (consciously or un- 
consciously) and many cannot resist. It is this ren- 
dering an audience subjective, or gaining passive 
attention by direction or control, that is the secret 
of the orator's success. Emotion (feeling) is largely 
the product of the actual state of the bodily organs 
which are more or less influenced by thought. Pain 

SYNOPTIC ANALYSIS OF THE COGNITIVE FACULTIES. 

ACQOISITIVE. 

(Perception.) 
Internal Perception. | External Perception. 

Consciousness of Self through contrast with externals in Consciousness of externals through their effect on the senses 
translation— Perception proper, I —Sensation 

CONSERVATIVE. 

(Memory.) 
Sub^ionscious ideational coherence by the law of Association operating in inverse ratio to the time, space and causal dis- 
tance between things (ideas). It is the " heart" or storehouse of the intellect. 

EEPRESENTA.TIVE. 

(Imagination.) , 

Suggestion. I , Recollection. 

The involuntary return of ideas to consciousness through The voluntary reproduction of ideas to consciousness accord- 
natural or association affinity. iCommon to all animals). | ing to individual habit or system. (Exclusively human. ) 

ELABORATIVE. 

(Relational.) 
Analysis. r Synthesis. i Judgment. _, Reason. 

Separation by affinities or Conjoining by affinities or Affirming a similarity or The comparison o f two 
qualities or structural rela- qualities or structural rela- dissimilarity between two thmgs with each othei 
tion. I tion. I things. I through a third. 

Intuition. I Instinct. , ^ , , 

The sub-conscious action of the mind m a new and The inherent faculty of lower and undeveloped organ- 
conscious relation bearing a concept. [ izations operating in lieu of reason or experience for con- 

I servative ends. 

REGCLATIVE. 

(Reason and Will.) 
Commcn sense— a priori or First Principles— the product of necessary or common experience— in action with new relations. 

Notes.— (1) A mental faculty is an inter-dependent mode of activity. 

(2) Active Attention or the power of voluntary direction and exclusion is a 

measure of the freedom or power of the Will; the Will is dependent on 
Reason and Reason on the efficiency of the subsidiary faculties. 

(3) The mind being ever active is always in a new relation. 

(4) Instinct is the first manifestation of mind, Intuition the later, and 

Reason the last or highest. 

or misery, like hunger, is the expression of a need, 
and the feeling of well-being is the expression of 
satisfied claims for physiologic requirements. Per- 
versions of different organs have different effects 
or suggestions on the mind by their sensory influ- 
ence. The different mental effects of drugs is thus 



130 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

probably due to their action on one or other of the 
various vegetative organs by the selective affinities 
of their different cell elements which each possess, 
rather than to any direct action on the brain. 

NORMAL DECADENCE. 

Dotage or second childhood is commonly re- 
garded as a normal terminal of old age. But as 
over all other organs the brain is much the least 
affected by general waste or starvation, it would 
appear that the mind should retain its powers much 
beyond those of the bodily frame. As indicating 
the normal disposition of the mind in advanced age 
to recur to early experiences I present the follow- 
ing extracts from letters of distinguished persons 
who up to the date of writing were actively em- 
ployed in one way or another. 

From Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, now over 80 
years of age, and at present preparing her reminis- 
cences, I glean the fact that her mind is strong and 
active with a vivid memory. She says: "I love to 
think over the joys and sorrows of my childhood 
and girlhood, and to see myself in pictures as I 
looked then." She thinks ** there is an immense 
advantage in doing this, as it makes us more sym- 



NORMAL MIND. I3I 

pathetic with the young, more tender with their 
trials, and more desirous to make them happy. I 
would fain save childhood from suffering what I 
did from restrictions." But her opinion is that 
"with a vivid, keen memory, all persons must more 
or less dwell in the past. Those who retain an 
active interest in the questions and reforms of their 
day, would, on the other hand, be more occupied 
with the living present." 

Miss Frances Willard, 56 years of age. President 
of the National W. C. T. U. , says : " I have observed 
for some time past that I was growing inclined to 
think of that which had been of especial interest to 
me in my childhood and youth. The same tend- 
ency was clearly manifested in my dear mother 
who was with me until the 88th year of her age, 
and who retained every faculty until the end. So 
far as my observation goes, this tendency is strongb' 
marked in all people who are known to me. The 
more years, the more backward looking over, though 
they may be profoundly interested in and preoccu- 
' pied by current affairs. " 

The Hon. Joseph Medill, editor Chicago Tribune 
and President of the Chicago Press Club, 73 years 
of age, says: *'I can discover no further change in 



132 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

the action of my mind than can be accounted for 
by experience, further study on many topics, and 
wider observation of men and things. The most 
marked change is that memory of the more recent 
occurrences seems weaker, less accurate, especially 
in dates, names and sequences of events. My mind 
recurs to youthful events and dwells on pleasurable 
or painful matters which then took place, the mem- 
ory being quite vivid and accurate of things which 
happened in my teens or the first decade thereafter. 
I believe this is the experience of most elderly per- 
sons. My judgment or reasoning powers do not 
seem to be impaired with advancing years, though 
I cannot think or conclude as rapidly as in past 
years, but consume more time in arriving at fixed 
conclusions." 

Ex-Governor Oglesby, thrice governor of Illinois, 
now 72 years of age, writes me: *' I cannot say that 
my mind recurs more frequently to early experiences 
in advancing age than it did formerly in younger 
years. As a matter of fact I have always delighted 
in reflection upon and remembrances of my child- 
hood days. I suppose this is quite common with 
all rational beings." 

From N. S. Davis, M.D. , LL. D., Emeritus Pro- 



NORMAL MIND. I 33 

fessor of- Medicine, Northwestern University, and 
ex-president and founder of the American Medical 
Association, 82 years of age: ''There is clearly in 
my own mind a distinct tendency to revert back to 
principles, facts and therapeutic applications of the 
earlier years of professional life. Certain it is that 
early impressions are far more durable than those 
made from 60 years onward to the end of life. I 
think this is easily traced in all educated and men- 
tally active people." 

It is thus evident that the normal dispositions of 
the mind in advanced age are retrospective and 
contemplative. Early experiences are the more 
profound and enduring in their influences on life as 
''the child is father to the man," and they sink to 
obscurity by the calls of an ever changing environ- 
ment of necessity and ambition, until, finally, the 
pinnacle of experience is reached and historic con- 
templation begins. The acquisitive faculty wanes 
with the decline of the sensory and motor powers, 
and things of recent date become less impressive. 
Thus, the disposition to retrospection is born of the 
growing retirement from the daily cares of active 
combat, and the punctuation points of early life, 
which lie at the basis of all character, press forward 



134 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

for the consideration of the wisdom that comes 
with maturity of decadence as a blessing to rising 
generations. But the process of degeneration, as 
differing from normal decadence, must play a part, 
though ever so slight, for it is not to be presumed 
that heredity and environment will leave any indi- 
vidual untainted with the effects of their evils. Also, 
the highest type of the individual, through strain of 
ambition, may forget the inexorable exactions of 
nature and thus trespass the conservative limits. 

It thus would seem that dotage is not a normal 
or necessary condition of old age, but a product of 
degeneration as differing from normal or natural 
decline. At last the brain, as the servile mechan- 
ism of the mind, fails to furnish the degree of energy 
requisite for co-operative labor, time and space 
cease to be factors in the evolution of the indi- 
vidual, and the veil of mystery — the occasion of all 
effort — remains as ever, to solicit the attention of 
the living and spur the strong to thought and con- 
quest. 

In conclusion I may observe that for the same 
reason that matter is indestructible, mind is immor- 
tal, and because similar results can only follow 
similar conditions, character cannot change post- 



NORMAL MIND. 



135 



mortem in any way possible ante-mortem, so that 
the exit from this Hfe must fit an entrance of the 
next. Thus the mind most subjective to First Prin- 
ciples will gain most in time and eternity. 

THE PHILOSOPHY OF DEGENERATION. 

OB CAUSATIONAL ANALYSIS OF MIND FACLT. 

Premise.— The power of Discernment with the power of Choice implies commensurate personal reeponsibility. therefore 
degradation has pnmanly a moiral cause and finally a mentnl result, or reduced capacity for enjoymenti (f ree functjoDing ) 



Def.—kas condition itgainst our best welfaro or Snal purpose. 



Acts of guilt, tr"^ 
Shame, 
Remorse. Despair, etc 



Ach of innocence. 

Defeat, 

Loss, Injustice, etc 



MENTAL RESULTS. 



obliquity, g 3 ^^^^^^ |g n,^i„„. 

Crimina- pH. eion. ffg- gg,,^^;. 

"'y- RtiiDOr. "< nation. 



Defective secretion or elimi- 
nation of glands, perverted se- 
cretion ; organic or inorganic 
poisons. 



^* A nxiety. 

Insomnia. 
S A :^ 

g EXHAiJSTION. ^ ■" 

f . BRAIN ^j" £•. 
= ATONY. ° 11 
"i, STARVATION. S £' 
V= Congestion Anemia 
Irritation. 



MOItAL RESULTS. 



Egotism. 
Malice. 



\ m palsy, „ <;; Wentot 

ll Crim- .Si ""''l-^^ 

II inality, feS Joaanity. 

' Fatuity. 



Fault of Blood. 
Quantity. 



Reduced power of secretory 

glands : mechanical obstruction 

to thcirsupplies; deficient food. 

^ t _- 



Vasomotor disturbances; 
thrombus, embolism, degener 
ation of blood vessels, external 
pressure on them. 



Privations, dissipations. 

indolence, shocks, strains, 

accidents, poisons, pathogenic germs, etc 



.-Aoftjo/fmidf^nce. 



Potential evil (negative 

impress) of protoplasmic b:i6l3[, 

the result of registrations of anccsti-.U fault 

PHYSICAL ASPECT. 



Notes.— (1) Brain atony is any condition of brain which does not successfully react 
to normal mental demands, and is relative to iiidividuxl capacity. 

(2) Causes and effects operate in a circle and run pai-allel t j each other. 

(3) Insomnia is deficiency of brain rest in any degree. 

(4) By degeneracy I simply mean disease, and not atavism, a theorj' which 

some evolutionists hold. 

(5) By Insanity I mean a defect of reason, a delusional state of mind fixed 

against reason or evidence. 

C5) By criminality 1 mean a defect of feeling or con.science; first principles 
are unrecognized; truth, justice and economj^ are totally disregarded 
when in conflict with desire; no grief follows wrongdoing; the intel- 
lect is clear, but normal sentiments of relationship are absent or 
inoperative. 

(7) Moral palsy or paresis is a defect of will, and implies the possession of 
normal sentiments with abnormal habits— a succumbing to tempta- 
tions—a defect of self control in one or more ways; grief follows 
wrong-doing; no delusion exists fixed against reason. As each condi- 
tion tends to beget tlie other, all degrees and combinations are found. 
Moral paresis in one form or another is almost universal. 



TEXT REFERENCES. 

CHAPTER I. 

(i) Jackson, J. Hughlings. Tuke's Diet, of Pscho. Med. 

(3) Morison. Edin. Med. Jour., Mar., 1899, p. 225, 

(4) Medical Record (New York). "The Physical Basis of Thought," 

Editorial Feb. 4, 1899. 
(6) Le Bon, Gustave. The Crozvd {sec. ed.) p. 9. 

(5) Luys. The Brain and Its Functions, pp. 135 and 141. 

CHAPTER II. 

(i) Morison. Morison Lecture. Lancet, Jan. i, 1899. 

(2) Foster. Text Booh of Physiology, vol. iv., p. 282. 

(3) Simpson. Jour. Me?it. Sci., Oct., 1898, also Oberstiner and others 

(4) Turner, J. Jour. Ment. Sci , July, 1898. 

(5) Donaldson. Americayi Text Book of Physiology. 

(6) Ayers. Jour. Comjar. Neurology, Dec, 1896. 

(7) Westphail. Quoted by Donaldson. 

(8) Virchow. Huxley Lecture. Lancet, Oct. 8, 1898. 

(9) Herrick. Proceedings of the Cincin?iati Soc. of Nat. Hist., Jan., 

1890. Ayers. Jour. Compar. Neurology, vol. i, p. 3. 

(10) Phelps. N. Y. Med. Jour., Oct. i, 1898. 
(ii) Schiifer. Brain, 1893, p. 158. 

(12) Thudichum. Puke's Diet, of Psycho., Med., vol. i, p. 146. 

(13) Sankey. Brit, and ForeigJi Medico-Chirurgical Rcz>., vol. xi. 

(14) Morison. Edin. Med. Jotir., Jan., 1899, p. 31. 

(15) Balfour. The Senile Heart, 1894. Beneke. Die Alteris Dis- 

Positio?is. 

(16) Vierordt From an examination of 415 males' and 424 females' 

brains ranging in age up to 25 years. Quoted by Burke, Pedagog 
Sem , Oct , 1898. 
' (137) 



1 33 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

(17) Boyd. Philos. Trans. Royal Society, 1861, p. 247. 

(18) Donaldson. Gromuth of the Brain. 

(19) Oberstiner, Prof. H. Quoted by Gowers. 

CHAPTER "hi. 
(i) Flechsig. Die Localization des Geistigen Voi^gange Imbersondisc 

der sinnisum Pfinderngen, 1896. 
(2; Donaldson. Am. Text Book of Physiology. 

(3) Kaes in 1893, and Edinger in 1896. Quoted by Burke in Fed. Sem., 

Oct., 1898. 

(4) Kaiser. Die Functionen der Ganglienzellen des Halsmack, 1891. 

(4) Racudrip. Proceedings Inter natio7ial Med. Cong., Rome, 1894 

(5) Carpenter. PrinciJ)les of Human Physiology ,i?)?>6, y>- S^gi^CLe-a. ) 

(6) Sellier and Verger. Archives de Physiologic, Oct., 1898. 

(7) Monokow. Quoted by Barker, four. Nerv. and Ment. Dis , Nov , 

1898. 

(8) Brain Centers. This diagram shows the conflict of views to some 

extent as to the arm and leg centers. The centers for vision, 
hearing, smell and speech are the most constant to respond to 
injury, while all the areas marked on either side of the middl 
third of the brain are merely hypothetical. Chapter IV show3 
that no centers are absolutely defined or essential. 

CHAPTER IV. 
(i) Taylor, Dr. E. W , Instructor in Neurology, Harvard University 
Boston Med. and Surg, four., Oct. 27, 1898. 

(2) Biglow (Gage case). Am. four, of Med. Sci., July, 1850. 

(3) Bianchi. Brain, winter, 1895. 

(4) Francis, Starr and Van Gieson. Am. four. Med. Sci., June, 1895. 

(5) Christison, Dr. J. S. Philadelphia Med. four., Jan. 21, 1899. 

(6) Spiller, Prof W. G. four. Nerv. and Ment. Dis., Jan., 1895. 

(7) Codrington, Foster and Hickson. four. Anthro. Inst., vol, ii, p. 75, 

also vol. xix, p. 53. 

(8) Clapham, Dr. Chrochley. four. Ment. Sci., April, 1898. 

(9) Mivart, Prof. St. George. Man and Apes. 

(10) Goltz. Pjlugers Archiv., bd. 20. 

(11) Starr. Med. Record, Feb. i, 1896. Knapp. Brit. Med. four. 

(Epitome) July 16, 1898. 

(12) Beevor. ^raeVz, autumn, 1898. 

(13) Goltz. Arch, furr de Gesemoyites Physiologic, vol. 51. 



TEXT REFERENCES. I 39 

(14) Taylor, E. W. Jour. Nerv. and Meyit. Dis., Jan., 1898. 

(15) Phelps. N. y. Med. Jour., Oct., 1898. 

(16) Putnam, Prof. J, J. Boston Med. and Sur^. Jour., Feb. 9, 1899. 

(17) Bailey, Dr. Pierce. Am. Jour. Med Set., Mar., 1899. 

(18) Hadden. Dr. W. B. Brain, Jan., 1889. 

(19) Andral, Prof. M., University of Paris. Quoted ReJ. Hand-Book 

Med. Sci. vol. 4 , p 97. 

(20) Boland and Whitney. Boston Med. atid Su)-§-. Jour., K^riXj, 1898. 

(21) Henchen. Brain. Vol. xvi, p. 177. 

(22) Ferrier. The Functioyis oj the Brain, 1886, p. 273. 
{23) Bruce. Brain, July, 1889. 

(24) Malinverni. Giortial del R. Acad, di Torino, 1874. 

(25) Eichler, Arch. J. Psychiatric, vol. viii, 1878. 
(26/ Paget Med. Chir. Trans., 1846, p. 55. 

(27) Jolly. Zeitschrijt J. Rationelle Medidicin Bd. 36, 1869. 

(28) Schafer, Prof. A. E. Brain, 1893, p. 154. 

(29) Danilewsky. Ayi. Un. Med. Sci., 1893. 

(30) Romanes. Animal Intelligeyice. 

(31) Mcintosh, Prof. W. C. Jour. Ment. Sci., April, 1898. 

CHAPTER V. 

(i) Parker, Dr. A. J. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, vol. x, part 

3, 1896 
{2) Turner, Prof. Sir Wm. Jour, of A?iatomy, Oct., 1890. 
(3) Mivart, Prof St. G. Man and Afes. 

(5) Wilder, Prof. B. G. Ref. Hand Book Med Sci., vol. viii. 

(6) Wagner, R. Varstudien einer zuissenschajtliche?i Morphologic 

2ind Physiologie des Menschlichen Gehiryis cds Sede?norga?is 
2 Abh., 1862, Tab. i, S. 14. 

(7) Marshall. Jour. Nej-v. and Meyit. Dis., vol. xx. 

(8) Wilder. Proceedi?igs oj the Ass'n oj Americayi Anatomists, 1895. 
{9) Eichler. Arch, oj Psychiatric, vol. viii, 1878. 

(10) Cunningham. Jotir. Anat. ayid Physiology, Oct., 1898. 

(11) Krause, quoted by Hartman. Anthropoid Apes. 

(12) Luciani, quoted ^/w. Un. Med. Sci , 1894. 

(14) Taylor. Jour. N'erv. and Ment. Dis , Jan , 1898. 

(15) Rae, J. Jour. Anthro. Inst., Nov , 1877, p. 142. 

(16) Flower, Prof. O. Jour. Aiithro. Inst., vol. 9 

(17) Heschl. IViener Medicinischer IVocheyischriJt , 1877, No. 41. 



140 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

CHAPTER VI. 

i) Ireland. Tuke's Diet. Psych. Med. 

2) Cordova and Adrian. Quoted by Ireland. Tuke's Diet. Psycho. 

Med. 

3) Down, Langdon. Btnt. Med. Jour., Jan. 8, 1887. 

4) Bateman. Joiir. Ment. Set., April, 1897. 

5) Hommarberg. Studien iiber Klinik zi Pathologic de7i Idiots 7iehsi 

unterszichenger iiber den Normales Ban der I/irnrifide, i8g. 
8) Simras. Fop. Sci. Monthly, Dec, 1898. 
g) Med. Times and Gazette, Nov. 17, 1883, p. 580. 
10) Quoted by Diebierre. Trait Element aire D' Anatomic De V Homme. 

12) Wagner. Am. U. Med. Scs., 1891, vol. v, g 15. 

13) Oberstiner. 

14) Wilson. Edin. Med. Jour ., Jan., 1891, p. 650. 

16) Middlemas. Med. Record, June 22, 1895. 

17) Grant, Cowie. Lancet, June 20, 1895, p 149. 

18) Rustan. Jour. Ment. Sci., Jan., 1895, p. 150. 

19) Levinge. Med. Record, June 22, 1895, p 791, 

20) Rudolphi. Grundries der Physiologic, Berlin, 1823, vol. ii., p. 11. 

21) Morris. Brit. Med. Jour., Oct. 26, 1872, p. 465. 

22) Simms. Poi>. Sci. Monthly, Dec . 1898. 

23) Le Bon, Gustave. Riverside Nat. Hist., vol. vi., p. 22. 

24) Davis. Jour. Acad. Sci , Phila., vol. vi, 1869. 

25) Boland. Alienist a7id Neurologist, Jan , 1888. 



DEFINITIONS. 



Anon — A terra used ia place of neuron when neuron is used to signify 
the cell and its parts as a complete anatomical unit. 

Anthropoid —yiSin-XWie. 

Ambiguous — DifiBcult to classify. 

Assymetrical — Not in proportion with its opposite side or half. 

Atrophy — Wasting from lack of nourishment. 

Axiom — A self-evident truth. 

Capsule— k membranous covering or sack. 

Calcified — Lined o erraeated with lime salts, usually from rheumatism 

Cerebrum — The upper and larger hemispheres of the brain and known 
as WiQ fore-brain in lower animals. 

Cerebellum, — The under and smaller hemispheres of the brain and con- 
stituting part of the hind-brain in lower animals 

Congenital — Existing from birth. 

Convolutions — Rounded projections formed by depressions or fissures. 

Correlative — Working in harmony with. 

Delusion — A false idea, the result of defective reasoning or the improper 
association of ideas. 

Dendron — A tree-like figure. 

Entity — A species or thing special in its origin and character. 

Fissure — A narrow cleft or separation. 

Function — The purpose of an organ or part. 

Fusiform — Resembling a spindle. 

gm. — Gram — 15-434 grains troy. 

Ganglia — Bundles of cells. 

Gyri — Convolutions. 

Glia — A bindweb cell — web-like substance of the brain — neuroglia. 

Hallucination — X suggestion or imagination originating from a disturb- 
ance in some part of a sensory organ. 
(141) 



142 BRAIN IN RELATION TO MIND. 

Histologic — Relating to the minute structure of tissues. 

Homogeneous— The same composition throughout. 

Homologous —Simi\a.r in function, but differing in form. 

Illusion — A wrong perception of an object. 

Lesion — An injury or abnormal change. 

Motor — Having to do with motion. 

Molecule — The minutest particle of a substance. 

Metabolism — The natural chemistry or necessary changes in living 

tissues — supply and demand operating in the cell. 
Menstruation — A periodical and natural condition of sexual disturbance 

in females. 
Microcephalic — Small head, weighing less than 1000 grams. 
Micro-organism — A germ visible only through the microscope. 
mm. — Millimetre, jgoo metre = ^q inch. 
At=.ooi mm. 
Neuron — A nerve fibre, sometimes used to mean the nerve cell with all 

its off-shoots. 
Nucleus — A cell within a cell, its vital center. 
Nucleolus — A cell within a nucleus. 
Neural — Pertaining to a nerve or nerves. 

Neuroglia — Pertaining to the web-like substance of the brain. 
Pathologic — Relating to disease. 
Pathology — Abnormal process — disease. 
Polymorphic — Many shaped. 
Pigmented — Containing coloring matter. 
Physiognomy — Facial expression. 
Pyramidal — Shape of a pyramid. 
Psychic — Mental — pertaining to mind. 
Reacting — Responding to conditions. 

Sensory — Pertaining to sensation and sense organ impressions. 
Somatic — Body or physical organism ;i 

Specific — A definite or fitting quality or quantity. 
Stereotyped — Fixed or habitual 
Sulci — Grooves. 
Toxic — Irritant — poisonoui. 

Vadum — A shallow in a fissure, representing a possible isthmus. 
Vascular — Pertaining to tubes, blood-vessels. 



SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER IV. 

Cases of Brain Tumor with mental integrity reported by Dr. Byron 
Bramwell in Brain, Spring, 1899. The black areas on the figures indi- 
cate the location and surface extent of the tumors. The case numbers 
are the same as in Dr, Bramwell's article. 

Case 4. Age 34, widow. Two sarcomatous tumors in the left frontal 
lobe. The posterior third of the second left frontal convolution (Exner's 
writing-speech center) was entirely destroyed and up to the time of the 
operation there were absolutely no mental symptoms and no agraphia 
(loss of power to write). Illustration shows cross section through the 
middle of the brain. 

Casey. Age 20, shop-girl. Sarcomatous tumor on the right side. The 
speech center and a very large portion of motor area were completely 
destroyed, yet there was absolutely no paralysis and no speech defect. No 
mental symptoms existed before operation except that the patient was 
much more quiet than she used to be. 

Case JO. Age 32, laborer. Enormous gliomatous tumor involving and 
destroying the greater part of the left frontal and temporo-sphenoidal 
lobes and a large part of the left occipital lobe. No paralysis, no aphasia, 
no deafness, but marked mental impairment and, at times, psychical 
blindness. 

Case II. Age 63, excise ofificer. Cyst in right temporo-sphenoidal 
lobe and a tumo* (glioma) the size of a large walnut in the posterior end 
of the second left frontal convolution. Absolutely no mental symptoms, 
no speech symptoms and no motor symptoms. 

Case 75. Age 41, chemist. Nodulated tumor involving the right 
angular gyrus and the adjacent parts of the parietal and occipital lobes 
with extensive softening of the subjacent white matter. Mental im- 
pairment and loss of memory. 




CASL <5 



(143) 



BY THE SAME AUTHOR 



CRIME AND CRIMINALS. 

SECOND EDITION 

With an appendix of 60 additional pages, containing analyses of the 
LUETGERT and other noted cases 

PRICE, S1.00 - - POSTPAID. 



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SEP 28 ltt99 



